We must also thank the participation of teachers, administrators and elders within Aboriginal communities who gave willingly of their time. Insights, perceptions, and experiences that were shared permitted an understanding of the value, spirit and purpose of online resources for Aboriginal learners.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements .....2
Table of Contents 3
List of Tables ..5
List of Figures .....6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .7
Purpose of This Study .9
Structure of This Study ..11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .12
The Current State ..12
Background ...13
The Role of Online Resources 15
The Development and Delivery of Future Content for Aboriginal Learners 16
Sustainability Models 16
Overview of Aboriginal People in Alberta and Canada 17
Native Aboriginal Languages 22
Aboriginal Perspective on Education 23
Connectivity and Access ..24
Alberta Governments Policy Framework 25
Aboriginal Learner Diversity 26
Cultural, Social and Economic Factors 27
Online Content Development 29
Teacher Traits/Teaching Styles 32
Student Characteristics, Learning Styles and Needs 34
Emergence of Online Learning within Aboriginal Learning Communities 35
Online In-Service and Pre-Service for Teachers of Aboriginal Learners 35
Technology Knowledge ....36
Promise to Online Learning 37
Barriers to Online Learning 39
The Way Online Has Worked: Different Approaches 39
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 42
Data Collection 42
Interviews 43
Three Stages of Data Collection 44
Focus and Design 45
Validation and Verification ..45
Data Analysis 46
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS 48
LearnAlberta.ca .. 48
Aboriginal Perspectives on Contextualizing Content for Aboriginal Learners.56
Aboriginal Approaches to Learning 56
Core Values 57
Constructivist Learning and the Experimental Model 58
Accessibility ...61
Open Vision Assessment Matrix (OVAM)......................................................61
Rationale for the Development of a Matrix 61
Matrix Background Information .63
OVAM: The Seven Measures ...63
Cultural Sensitivity .64
Local Improvement .64
Cultural Significance ..64
Cultural Standards ..64
Traditional Learning Alignment .65
Accessibility 65
Aboriginal Learning Cycle Re-Purposing ..65
Cultural Sensitivity .66
Local Involvement ..67
Cultural Significance ..67
Cultural Standards ..68
Traditional Learning Alignment .68
Accessibility ...69
Aboriginal Learning Cycle Re-Purposing ..70
Application of the OVAM Instrument to LearnAlberta.ca and CISCO Resources ..70
Ideology and the News Media 71
Additional Comments .72
Researching and Making Presentations, English Language Arts 30 ..73
Additional Comments .74
Math 5 Live!, Grade 5 Mathematics ...75
Additional Comments .76
Fundamentals of Web Design, Cisco, Networking Academy 77
Additional Comments .78
Findings and Conclusions .79
Applicability of LearnAlberta.ca Content to Aboriginal Learners
And Educators ..79
LearnAlberta.ca: Customization for Aboriginal Learner .79
Corporate Sector: Appropriate to Aboriginal Learners 80
Other Appropriate Online Resources For Aboriginal Learners 81
Conclusions and Recommendations .85
OVAM Instrument ........................................................................................94
APPENDIX A: Questions for Elders ...95
APPENDIX B: Questions for Teachers ...96
APPENDIX C: KCDC Interview Questions ....97
APPENDIX D: Alberta Learning Questions 98
APPENDIX E: Open Vision Assessment Matrix Template ...100
REFERENCES 101
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Aboriginal Identity Population, 2001 Counts, for Canada, Provinces
and Territories 19
Table 2. Size and growth of the population reporting Aboriginal ancestry and
Aboriginal identity, Canada, 1996-2001 .20
Table 3. Median age1 for population reporting Aboriginal identity and non-Aboriginal
population, Canada, provinces and territories, 2001 .21
Table 4. Population reporting Aboriginal identity, by age groups,
Canada, 1996 and 2001 ...22
Table 5. Aboriginal-identity population using an Aboriginal language at home
compared with their knowledge of an Aboriginal language, for selected
languages with 2,000 or more speakers (Statistics Canada, 2001) 23
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. LearnAlberta.ca 49
Figure 2. Experiential Learning Circle (Kolb & Fry, 1975) 59
Figure 3. Aboriginal Experiential Learning Circle ..60
In Alberta, as within other Provinces, there are a significant number of Aboriginal learners that attend both on-Reserve and off-Reserve schools. As with all learners, there has been an interest among First Nation stakeholders to investigate and deliver education through online approaches. School jurisdictions, the Alberta Ministry of Education and other Aboriginal stakeholders seek to understand how online learning can effectively meet the needs of First Nation learners. That understanding can be reached through research that assesses indicators of success and failure in the development of online content and the possible contextualization of existing online content for Aboriginal learners. The following questions will serve to frame the study:
1. In what ways does the LearnAlberta.ca resource library provide content that is specific to the curriculum and applicable to Aboriginal learners and educators?
2. What online learning resources are required to serve the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta, as identified by relevant stakeholders?
3. What level of customization in the LearnAlberta resource library might be considered to meet the needs of the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta?
4. What recommendations can be identified to direct future development of online content that is purposeful, relevant and meaningful to the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta?
5. What online resources can be identified within the corporate sectors that are appropriate for Aboriginal learners?
6. What sustainability models in the development and delivery of online content can be identified within the corporate sector and/or the learning sector?
7. What time and cost efficiencies can be realized from these sustainability models?
8. What contextualization is required to make corporate and other online content applicable to Aboriginal Learners?
This research was envisioned to determine what early lessons could be learned from the Alberta experience in response to these questions and for the future development of online content specific to Aboriginal learners in Canada.
Online learning is a relatively new educational alternative. As defined by Alberta Education, an online or virtual program is a program offered by a school delivered electronically at a school site or off-campus, under the instruction and complete supervision of a certificated teacher of a board or an accredited private school (Alberta Education, 1998, p. 16). Alberta, more than any other province in Canada, has been instrumental in the creation of the virtual school. Since 1995, twenty-three virtual schools have been created. Online content is available in Alberta through computer-mediated distance education for grades one through twelve. This content is diverse in terms of the instructional model, delivery, number of core and optional content offerings, and type of student characteristics that it is proposed to serve. Online learning also transcends the normal boundaries of time and space, as it can be delivered at any time and in any place that has connectivity and the technology to utilize it. Fiscal and governance boundaries are also being blurred as school districts are collaborating with other jurisdictions to provide online content within a consortium of educators.
The province of Alberta, and Canada in general, are providing plenty of online resources that range from digital assets, to learning objects, to lesson bundles, to courseware. The urgency of this study arises from a need for evidence that this content is applicable to and suitable for Aboriginal learners. Further examination of existing online content from various sources provides necessary evidence for arriving at a defensible conclusion as to the ultimate value, purpose, and/or contextualization of existing content; and what future online content development efforts might envisage specific to Aboriginal learners. This study also considers the viability and sustainability, as well as educational, social and economic value, of online learning within Aboriginal learner environments. Questions also arise regarding the educational need that online learning will address, the impact it will have on teaching and learning, and how it might influence the social fiber of this province while recognizing and remaining sensitive to Aboriginal learners.
Purpose of This Study
The primary intent of this study is to identify and assess indications of success and failure in the development of online content and the possible contextualization of existing online content for Aboriginal learners. The study will focus on the strengths and shortcomings of existing content and on the process and methodologies that might be considered in creating new online content specific to this learner group. It will also serve to identify models that would provide the confidence that either existing online content and/or that future online content would be developed in a manner that would support long-term sustainability and purpose to the Aboriginal learner context.
Further, from the researchers perspective this study was intended to provide an understanding of the possibility of repurposing existing online content that might better serve the Aboriginal learning community. As well as the examination of online content and sustainability models specific to Aboriginal learners, this study addresses issues surrounding mechanisms, as supported by Aboriginal community members, which would confirm an understanding of required criteria that could be applied to existing online content and/or to the development of new online content.
Within the context of the regulatory environment, this study examines the mandates, policies, procedures, and directives that are involved in creating online content specific to Aboriginal learners, focusing on both supportive and obstructive elements within this regulatory structure. Written policies and procedures relating to online content development were examined to determine whether the structure of the online content fulfills the provincial mandate and the requirements that are set out by Alberta Education, to determine whether these requirements are being met, and to further determine whether there is a need to revise these regulations to reflect the current and anticipated future needs of Aboriginal learners.
This study looks at the structure, administration and development of online content and, in this context, examines the role of the relevant stakeholders from within the Aboriginal community and from within the learning and corporate contexts. This study addresses the role of Aboriginal stakeholders and how they should be involved in content development initiatives.
In examining whether online content specific to Aboriginal learners add value and/or enhance student achievement, this study examines program selection, development, management and delivery of curricula. In this context, it examines how online learning enhances conventional teaching and learning practice. As well, the study addresses if and/or how content includes differentiation of instruction to meet individual needs; if the program of studies is more applicable to a specific level of cognitive ability; what instructional designs and innovations are being tried in relation to student performance; what enrichment and remedial strategies are being implemented; and most specifically, whether these strategies are effective and appropriate to and for Aboriginal learners.
Conclusions have been reached based on the past and present experiences of virtual schools and on observed transformations in practice.
Structure of This Study
The study has been organized into five chapters: the introduction to the study; the review of the literature; the methodology; the research findings; and the final chapter focusing on the summary with its conclusions, implications and recommendations.
Since 1995, in the Province of Alberta, there have emerged 23 virtual schools offering students computer-mediated distance education. Concurrently, Alberta Learning, a Ministry within the Alberta Government, has created LearnAlberta.ca which supports lifelong learning by providing quality online resources to the Kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-12) community in Alberta.
Students, teachers, and parents will find multimedia learning resources that directly relate to the Alberta programs of study. LearnAlberta.ca is a safe, reliable and innovative collection of learning resources developed by Alberta Learning in consultation with stakeholders. (LearnAlberta.ca, 2005). Added to the resources that can be found within the various 23 virtual schools and through LearnAlberta.ca, there are also many commercial online products that are available and being accessed by K-12 learners in the Province.
In most cases, the online content that has been developed does not include:
Constructivist and/or inquiry-based learning models
Principles of differentiation to accommodate a diverse learner group
Content that is appropriate to sub-groups (i.e. Aboriginal learners)
Rather, the bulk of the content has been developed recreating practice that is used within conventional teaching and learning contexts. Jonassen, Davidson, Collings, Campbell, and Haag (1996) argue that the development of instructional design that enhances teaching and learning practice should be a priority. They state that one of the reasons for the poor research results in computer-mediated communication in distance education is that technologically-mediated distance learning has more often than not merely replicated the ineffective methods that limit learning in face-to-face classrooms (p. 7). However, there is also the issue of geographic disparity and lack of resources within smaller rural schools (including Band Schools), which is illustrative of the need for alternative forms of delivery and development of schooling. To that end, online learning can provide a contingency of success. Garrison (1990) states that students have the opportunity to study in their homes, community, and workplace while still experiencing a quality learning experience through the guidance and support of qualified teachers (p. 50) and these are the characteristics that Aboriginal learners may find attractive. In order to better understand the characteristics of Aboriginal learners, an overview of aboriginal people in Alberta and Canada will be provided.
For First Nations, education is seen as a fundamental component to success and prosperity. It will provide tools to facilitate wisdom and may provide the capacity to successfully navigate life from a First Nations Perspective. In order to assist the process of ensuring educational success, and in the spirit of collaboration, First Nation Learners and stakeholders will need to continue to discuss, develop, and create plans for increasing student achievement.
Many native groups have identified two major problems in the current educational content that is available to them. One is the absence of educational content that incorporates First Nations persons and their histories, culture, and values. The other problem is a perceived bias against First Nations people within the content and pedagogical approaches ((Schissel and Wotherspoon 2003, p. 120).
This problem was addressed in policy documents such as Indian Control of Indian Education (ICIE). These policy documents detailed a need to remove existing bias from educational materials and incorporate local input into the development and delivery of content (Kirkenss and Bowman 1992, p. 34). This approach has resulted in a slow increase in the amount of locally developed curriculum within First Nations schools.
In describing a vision for moving forward to improve education in First Nations communities, it was identified that the schools can more effectively meet student needs when community members shape the programs. Communities need to be able to set the vision, goals, and priorities for their own schools (NWT Ministry of Education, Culture and Employment 1993: 65). This will involve a redefinition of roles and responsibilities for the education ministry and the communities.
An example of a community-based program can be found in literacy programs for First Nations adults in British Columbia. The Educating for Change program developers believed that literacy was dependent upon the social, economic, historical and cultural conditions that give life to a community (Rodriquez 2001: 1). Without involving local resources and creating curriculum that reflected local realities, the educational context was contrived and suffered in effectiveness. The program offered a number of strategies for involving local communities through a process of consultation, observation, and participation (Rodriquez 2001: 8). The goal of the involvement was to provide an ongoing evolution of the curriculum in order to best meet the needs of the community and the learners.
If the process of community involvement and consultation with the community is not well-implemented or is ignored, there are examples where animosity and frustration result. In the Quesnel district in British Columbia, just such an incident resulted in a bottoming-out of relationships between the local community and the local school district (Bello and Napier 1989:28). In that situation the school district obtained funding to undertake a wide consultation process and develop a five year plan. The plan defined a roadmap for creating native community involvement as well as the review and modification of existing curriculum to reflect community concerns.
It is believed that for students to develop the skills necessary to be successful in the future job market, they will need to learn a variety of skills. These include creativity, communication, problem-solving, and technological skills. In order to achieve this broad range of skills, students will need to have access to a wide range of courses that can meet their needs and give them realistic options (NWT Ministry of Education, Culture and Employment 1993: 67). Given the small school population sizes and geographical distances between schools, online content may serve as a key component in exposing students to the wider range of resources including, but not exclusive of, courses, teachers, virtual fieldtrips, and mentorship programs.
In order to build this kind of content for multiple communities, cultures, and languages it will need to be re-purposable so that it can be modified by local experts. It is believed that technology permits this level of flexibility and accessibility to course content for students. Schools will no longer be restricted to their current physical structures such as traditional books and buildings (NWT Ministry of Education, Culture and Employment 1993: 70).
An important factor in the effectiveness of the content is the in-class delivery and assistance provided by teachers. Although there are a relatively low number of aboriginal teachers within the school system, successful delivery of the content can occur with any teacher that is sensitive to student backgrounds and cultural orientations. This facilitation of content would need to allow for differences in learning styles, traditions, cultures, and languages. ((Schissel and Wotherspoon 2003, p. 118)
Currently there are some demonstratable inefficiencies within technology-based distance delivery systems. They often require subsidization. In the NWT, the education system is currently supported by federal funding for language education and Albertas Ministry of Education providing services free of charge ((NWT Ministry of Education, Culture and Employment 1993: 73). Should levels of funding decrease, the level, rigor, and number of online resources will likely diminish.
Sustainability may be defined by the amount of work the community is willing to put into the education system in order for the system to thrive. There are examples of programs and initiatives that have sustained themselves because of the community of learners that rally around them. The SchoolNets Network of Innovative Schools, serves as a model of an innovative initiative that sustains itself with a relatively small amount of fiscal resources, but with large amounts of human and in-kind resource. Although this later model is admirable, it is onerous on the organizations and stakeholders that provide in-kind contributions to support the effort, and it raises questions whether long-term sustainability of such initiatives can continue without external support.
In the online learning context, long-term sustainability can occur through shared resources among stakeholders including infrastructure and content and within a spirit of collaboration which will foster cultural and traditional sensitivities; encourage cost-efficient models of repurposing and sharing existing content; and open opportunities for shared delivery systems. Because numbers of Aboriginal learners are relatively small, in order to realize cost and time efficiencies and serve to sustain online learning possibilities, a collaborative model is likely one that can provide levels of success. In order to better understand the demographic information that might support a more defensible understanding of models that would support online learning, this study includes an overview of Aboriginal people in Alberta and Canada.
Alberta is a unique province with a rich history and a diverse Aboriginal population that includes the First Nations peoples inhabiting 123 Reserves and having membership in 44 First Nations, which are divided into 3 treaty areas. The reserve lands cover 700,537 hectares in the province. The most commonly spoken languages are Blackfoot, Cree, Chipweyan, Dene, Sarcee and Stoney (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2003). In 2002, there were 89,812 Registered First Nations people living in Alberta. 52,328 were living on a Reserve, 2,718 were living on Crown land and 30,766 were living off the Reserve (Indian and Northern Affairs, p. 53). There were however, a total of 84,995 First Nations people residing in Alberta. This number is comprised of both status and non-status First Nations people from North America. There were 66,060 Mιtis people and 1,090 Inuit people also living in Alberta, with a collective total of 156,225 Aboriginal people (Table 1). In comparison to all Aboriginal people in Canada, there were total of 701,851 Aboriginal people with 380,067 living on Reserve, 23,270 living on Crown Land and 301,514 living off Reserve (Ministry of Public Works and Government Services of Canada, 2002). A total of 976,305 First Nations people, 292,305 Mιtis people and 45,070 Inuit people were living in Canada (Table 2) (Statistics Canada, 2004).
Table 1: Aboriginal Identity Population, 2001 Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories
1 Includes the Aboriginal groups (North American Indian, Mιtis and Inuit), multiple Aboriginal responses and Aboriginal responses not included elsewhere. The Aboriginal identity population comprises those persons who reported identifying with at least one Aboriginal group, that is, North American Indian, Mιtis or Inuit, and/or who reported being a Treaty Indian or a Registered Indian, as defined by the Indian Act of Canada, and/or who reported being a member of an Indian Band or First Nation (Statistics Canada, 2001). |
Unique to the Aboriginal population is their incredible rate of growth in population (Table 2). The population for people with Aboriginal Ancestry grew tenfold, while the rest of Canada grew only six times over the past 100 years (Statistics Canada, 2004).
Table 2: Size and growth of the population reporting Aboriginal ancestry and Aboriginal identity, Canada, 1996-2001
|
|
|
|
Percentage Growth |
|
Years |
2001 |
1996 |
1996-2001 |
|
Total: Aboriginal ancestry1 |
1,319,890 |
1,101,960 |
19.8 % |
|
Total: Aboriginal Identity |
976,305 |
799,010 |
22.2% |
|
North American Indian2 |
608,850 |
529,040 |
15.1% |
|
Metis2 |
292,310 |
204,115 |
43.2% |
|
Inuit2 |
45,070 |
40,2200 |
12.1% |
|
Multiple and other Aboriginal responses3 |
30,080 |
25,640 |
17.3% |
1 Also known as Aboriginal origin.
2 Includes persons who reported a North American Indian, Mιtis or Inuit identity only.
3 Includes persons who reported more than one Aboriginal identity group (North American Indian, Mιtis or Inuit) and those who reported being a Registered
Indian and/or Band member without reporting an Aboriginal identity. (Statistics Canada, 2004, p.20)
Within the past 50 years, the Aboriginal population has increased by 161%. It was reported in the 2001 census that the median age for Aboriginal people is 24.7 years, with Alberta at 23.4 years, compared to the median age of 37.7 years for the non-Aboriginal population in Canada (Table 3).
Table 3. Median age1 for population reporting Aboriginal identity and non-Aboriginal population, Canada, provinces and territories, 2001
|
Median Age (years) |
|
|
|
|
Aboriginal |
Non-Aboriginal |
|
Canada |
24.7 |
37.7 |
|
Newfoundland and Labrador |
27.7 |
38.5 |
|
Prince Edward Island |
24.6 |
37.4 |
|
Nova Scotia |
25.3 |
38.7 |
|
New Brunswick |
28.2 |
38.5 |
|
Quebec |
27.9 |
38.5 |
|
Ontario |
27.9 |
37.1 |
|
Manitoba |
22.8 |
38.5 |
|
Saskatchewan |
20.1 |
38.8 |
|
Alberta |
23.4 |
35.4 |
|
British Columbia |
26.8 |
37.7 |
|
Yukon Territory |
28.6 |
37.7 |
|
Northwest Territories |
24.0 |
34.5 |
|
Nunavut |
19.1 |
35.2 |
1 Median age is the point at which exactly one-half of the population is older, and the other half is younger (Statistics Canada, 2004, p. 20).
Thirty-three percent of the Aboriginal population in Canada is 14 years or younger compared to 19% of the non-Aboriginal population, with Aboriginal children representing 5.6% of all children (Table 4) (Statistics Canada, 2004). This number is estimated to continue to grow at a decreased rate, but still continue to grow faster than the non-Aboriginal population (Government of Canada, 2004)). It is further estimated that the population growth in the prairies, led by Manitoba and followed closely by Alberta and Saskatchewan, will experience the largest growth mostly due to the higher projected fertility rate. The under 19 population will decline from 42% to 32%, but by 2021 will produce 59% of the working population between the ages 20-64 (Statistics Canada, 2004). To compound the population trends, it is reported that 1 in 5 Aboriginal people moved in the past year. Aboriginal people are more mobile than other Canadians. There has been an observed continuation of this trend, and since 1981 Aboriginal people have been moving to Reserves and large urban centres (Statistics Canada, 2004).
Table 4. Population reporting Aboriginal identity, by age groups, Canada, 1996 and 2001.
|
Age Group |
2001 |
1996 |
||
|
|
Number |
% |
Number |
% |
|
Total |
976,305 |
100% |
323,960 |
100% |
|
0-14 years |
323,960 |
33.2% |
280,420 |
35.1 |
|
15-24 years |
169,065 |
17.3 |
143,795 |
18.0 |
|
25-64 years |
443,600 |
45.4 |
346,485 |
43.4 |
|
65 years and over |
39,680 |
4.1 |
28,310 |
3.5 |
Only 24 % of Aboriginal people could support conversational language skills within their First Nation native language. Of this group, a large percentage use their language on a regular basis (Table 5). There are hundreds of Aboriginal languages and dialects in Canada. Overall, the number of Aboriginal language speakers has been declining. Those who spoke Inuktitut, Dene, Montagnais-Naskapi, Attikamekw, Micmac, Dakota/Sioux and Oji-Cree showed an increase in their number of speakers. Other languages, such as Cree and Blackfoot (Alberta), showed a decrease in the number of speakers between 1996 and 2001(Statistics Canada, 2004, p. 21). This loss or decrease in language speakers and users is a concern, since Aboriginal languages are not common and many languages have already been lost (Table 5).
Table 5. Aboriginal-identity population using an Aboriginal language at home compared with their knowledge of an Aboriginal language, for selected languages with 2,000 or more speakers (Statistics Canada, 2001).
|
Aboriginal languages2,3 |
Know an Aboriginal language |
Use Aboriginal languages regularly at home |
Percentage of those who know an Aboriginal language who use it regularly at home |
|
Number |
Percentage |
||
|
Cree |
92,630 |
69,210 |
74.7 |
|
Inuktitut |
31,945 |
29,350 |
91.9 |
|
Ojibway |
27,995 |
17,140 |
61.3 |
|
Dene |
10,500 |
9,275 |
88.3 |
|
Montagnais-Naskapi |
10,285 |
9,765 |
94.9 |
|
Micmac |
8,625 |
6,820 |
79.1 |
|
Oji-Cree |
5,610 |
4,490 |
80.0 |
|
Attikamekw |
4,935 |
4,620 |
93.6 |
|
Dakota/Sioux |
4,875 |
3,535 |
72.5 |
|
Blackfoot |
4,415 |
2,870 |
65.0 |
|
Salish languages not included elsewhere |
2,675 |
1,125 |
42.1 |
|
Algonquin |
2,340 |
1,490 |
63.7 |
|
Dogrib |
2,265 |
1,895 |
83.7 |
|
Carrier |
2,000 |
950 |
47.5 |
|
(1) Data adjusted for incomplete enumerated Indian reserves in 1996 and 2001. |
|||
|
(2) Four reserves in Manitoba had changes in reporting patterns for Cree, Ojibway and Oji-Cree between 1996-2001, consequently, data for these reserves have been excluded. |
|||
|
(3)Due to changes in reporting patterns and coding between 1996 and 2001, North Salve (Hare) and South Slave are not shown. |
|||
(Statistics Canada, 2004)
The demographics are a present day reflection of Aboriginal populations, but the numbers do not explain the historic complexities of Aboriginal people. Aboriginal community members have argued that one must know who you are and where you came from in order to move forward. Traditionally, Aboriginal people have nurtured and perpetuated learning through oral traditions that have been passed down from generation to generation using languages that may be considered far richer than the English Language. Over a relatively short period of time, mostly since the Indian Act was passed in 1867, the lives and education of Aboriginal people have been primarily controlled by the Federal and Provincial Governments without consultation or appreciation of the cultural differences of Aboriginal people. The Canadian Reserve system alone has created challenges and barriers for Aboriginal people whose reserves are not near urban centres or modern amenities. In fact, families and whole villages were continually disrupted through the attempts to assimilate Aboriginal people into the greater Canadian context. These efforts have influenced and shaped how Aboriginal people view government and education (Bell, 2004). There is still a great deal of mistrust of the education system among Aboriginal stakeholders that could be attributed to the residential school system.
The statistics on Aboriginal learner outcomes are still less successful than other groups in Canada (Bell, 2004). For example, British Columbia has a 46% graduation rate for Aboriginal students, versus 81% for non-Aboriginal students (Government of British Columbia Aboriginal Education Ministry of Education, 2003/2004). The lack of educational success among Aboriginal people is documented worldwide, and efforts in Canada to connect Aboriginal communities to the rest of the world have led to many initiatives facilitating connectivity and access to broadband, Internet, and technology integration on many levels.
Connectivity and access to meet the needs of remote peoples, particularly Aboriginal people, is an important element in ensuring choice, equity, and efficiency in teaching and learning practice. The Province of Alberta has moved forward with the Supernet, which will establish an equitable means by which all Albertans, including Aboriginal learners on or off Reserves can have access and connectivity to the World Wide Web. At present not all Provinces realize this level of connectivity, and the Supernet should serve as a model for other Provinces in order to provide the level of technology integration that will support innovative practice within the Aboriginal learning community.
Alberta Learning has created a policy document called First Nations, Metis, and Inuit Education Policy Framework that is designed to address the educational needs of all Aboriginal peoples in the province of Alberta and documents needs from pre-K to post secondary (Alberta Learning, 2002). It emphasizes a relationship-building model that fosters understanding, collaboration, inclusiveness, and a commitment to improving Aboriginal education levels and experiences for Aboriginal people. In particular, the goals of the policy include:
Goal 1: High quality learning opportunities that are responsive, flexible, accessible, and affordable to the learner;
Goal 2: Excellence in learner achievement;
Goal 3: Learners are well-prepared for participation in post-secondary studies and the labour market;
Goal 4: Effective working relationships;
Goal 5: Highly responsive and responsible ministry.
These goals were created within a collaborative framework with involvement from the Aboriginal communities, including elders, education community (all levels) and various government agencies. The document also includes strategies with which the above documented goals can be achieved.
In particular, Aboriginal learners are a racially diverse group whose appearance is as diverse as the number of people who identify themselves as being Aboriginal. Aboriginal learners are inherently entrusted with and internalize the memories and pre-dispositions of their forefathers. This is a cultural sensitivity that should be understood and supported within teaching and learning practice; however, it does not intimate that Aboriginal learners have one set learning style. Aboriginal learners, similar to non-Aboriginal learners, should not be subject to a one size fits all homogeneous learning context. Aboriginal learners are a diverse group of students with individual cognitive and affective learning needs (Bell, 2004). Bell (2004) argues that there is not one definitive Aboriginal learning style. He also argues that students need to know how to understand how they receive and process information, and by doing so they increase their ability to take control of their own learning processes and have identified their Learning style(Bell, 2004). This does however pose a challenge to teachers working with Aboriginal students.
Teachers should recognize the need to build personal relationships with the learner and his or her family to gain a better understanding of the student. This will begin to support a learner profile that could accommodate a plan to meet individual learner needs. This is often a challenge within conventional teaching and learning practice where the structures and processes do not permit this level of communication and understanding to develop. This may be less of a challenge in On-Reserve schools where there is an appreciation and awareness for the need to communicate with the family to understand the child and his or her learning needs.
In order to ensure that Aboriginal learner needs are addressed, educators must look more closely at the learning styles of Aboriginal people. The issue of Aboriginal learning styles continues to be somewhat problematic, because the inventories that have been developed do not account for the broad scope of cultures and traditions that are all bound by the term Aboriginal. However, there has been consensus on best practices for teaching Aboriginal students and meeting their learning needs. Like any other racial group, Aboriginal learning styles vary according to: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, cultural, social, and economic factors. Contrary to Bells argument, which states that Aboriginal learners are diverse and should not be grouped or classified under one learning type or style, the literature reveals that there are implied assumptions that one homogenous learning style could or should apply to all Aboriginal learners (McMullen & Rohrbach, 2003). It is evident that other factors also need to be recognized in order to ensure educational value and purpose to the Aboriginal learning community in the development and delivery of online context.
Cultural, Social and Economic Factors
McMullen and Rohrbach (2003) have found that cultural, social, and economic forces from a local or community level are more important than cognitive functions. Further, traditional learning is still an influence on Aboriginal students as it is inherently built into their social structures. For example, oral traditions, which have the capacity to support multiple understandings depending on the age of the recipient, are still used in some communities (McMullen & Rohrbach, 2003). Other subtle behaviours from within Aboriginal communities are modeled by younger members. Some of these behaviours include delayed speech patterns, reduced eye contact, and watch and then do mannerisms (McLoughlin & Marshall, 2000). While it is important to respect Aboriginal learner diversity, it is equally important to avoid stereotyping based on one set of traditional values or styles (McLouglin & Marshall, 2000).
There are 5 common philosophies, ideologies, or understandings that run between and among Aboriginal cultures including:
Maintaining a holistic perspective,
Embracing an interconnectedness of all things,
Maintaining a connection to the land and community,
Visualizing the world as a dynamic unit, and
Possessing a power over oneself or power within (Bell, 2004).
Many, if not all of these philosophies, ideologies or understandings have been void in content that has been developed in either the conventional or online contexts. Rather, content has been developed with the inclusion of Euro-Canadian influences, dating back to the residential school initiatives.
Historically, conventional teaching and learning practice and the attempt to assimilate and educate Aboriginal people through the residential school initiative, as well as the failure of the current education system to meet the needs of Aboriginal learners, has led educators in remote communities to believe that newly developed resources specific to Aboriginal learners cannot be created in the absence of community collaboration and appreciation of diversity within the community as well as the philosophy, ideology, and understandings that are inherently a part of Aboriginal culture and tradition (Bell, 2004). The expectation should not be learners fitting into a pre-set curriculum, but rather, the expectation should be that the curriculum is created to suit learner needs. Educators and online content developers should identify and create curriculum and online content that appeals to and is valuable to a broad range of learning styles and is sensitive to cultural and traditional factors
Collaborative online content development efforts for and with Aboriginal stakeholders (i.e. Elders, teachers, administrators, community members etc.) are imperative if the traditions and history are to be embedded in the content (Bell, 2004
There are certain ways to develop online content that is more appropriate for Aboriginal learners (Bell, 2004). Aboriginal students tend to look at the whole picture and then break it into parts, and they use more visual cues, symbols, and diagrams in communicating ideas (Bell, 2004). Developing online content using these types of stratagems more easily permits multi-disciplinary approaches. Further, the incorporation of traditional knowledge, the weaving in of meaningful learning opportunities and connections can only enhance learning for Aboriginal students (Bell, 2004). Aboriginal learners should be provided with concrete examples of ideas, theories, or perspectives. Further, assessment mechanisms within online content should include reflective feedback. Although, the caution is that again, this is not a one size fits all approach, it is generally agreed that Aboriginal learners tend to perform better using the above strategies, as well as the opportunity to make mistakes and to retry the test/assignment/assessment mechanism until a skill has been mastered (McMullen & Rohrbach, 2003).
Most importantly, Aboriginal communities are unique unto themselves, and in order for online content to be valuable and purposeful to that learner group there must be a respectful understanding of the local community for whom the content is being developed, and collaboration from within that local community in the development of online content.
Aboriginal communities are changing daily, and learning opportunities need to be responsive, flexible, accessible, and affordable to the learner. As well, these learning opportunities should have the potential to improve student learning (Bell, 2004). It is also important to appreciate that children learn best when they learn in context; when they can relate what they are learning to their own experience (Bell, 2004), which puts Aboriginal children at a disadvantage, because this is not always reflected in conventional teaching and learning environments, and is also often absent in curriculum, content, and learning resources.
Instructors and course designers require an understanding of Aboriginal learner profiles in order to create online content that will support community values, traditions, and diversity (Daniels, 2003, McMullen & Rohrback, 2003), and provide cultural relevancy (Cheadle, 2004). Aboriginal learners can also benefit from the inclusion of audio files to accompany sites with large amounts of text (Daniels, 2003) which, if possible, should also include video files.
Online content varies according to the instructional design and learning model that is applied. Further, online content can be designed as digital assets, learning objects, lesson bundles, and full courseware. Most of the existing content in the Province of Alberta and in the Canadian context does not include content specific to Aboriginal learners. However, there are some schools, like Sunchild and Keewaytinook, who have created culturally relevant courses that are in alignment with their Provinces Ministry of Educational standards. The content that is being developed focuses on adult education, vocational training, university courses, high school courses, and high school completion courses.
Within the Aboriginal community of learning there is interest in developing relevant, meaningful content using a variety of development and delivery types. At the present time, online developers are including:
Asynchronous and synchronous communication
Self-paced strategies
Face to face opportunities
A combination of print and electronic formats
A variety of Learning Models including: Instructive, Constructivist, as well as, inquiry and problem based learning
Telephone and email communication
Chat rooms
Video conferencing
Multimedia audio and video clips, and digital archiving
Most of the content developed within Aboriginal communities is archived for anytime, anyplace learning opportunities.
Aboriginals are using technology to:
Preserve languages
Preserve primary source archival and archaeology artefacts from the history of the local people
Archive stories, pictures, archaeological remains, peoples territories and histories told by elders,
Preserve their traditions
Aggregate learning resources, demographic information, and band information for both Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal people
As evidenced above, Aboriginal communities are using the Internet and other technologies to support the preservation of their culture, traditions and language; however, this is not yet prevalent enough to have confidence in articulating that this preservation is no longer in jeopardy. Greater understanding and professional development are requirements of realizing and ensuring that online content is being developed in a manner that supports Aboriginal community and learner needs.
It is essential that teachers who serve Aboriginal learners incorporate Aboriginal values into their teaching and learning practice. Not only do teachers need to build a trusting relationship with both their students and parents, but they also require an understanding of the individuals they are teaching and their history to ensure that student learning is meaningful (Bell, 2004). Teachers who include and encourage:
Hands on opportunities,
Group activities,
Students to be aware of their sphere of influence,
Students to consider the impact of their actions on others in the classroom and the community
will have greater success with Aboriginal students. Exploring ways to create a sense of home in both online and traditional teaching and learning environments, and to invite and welcome Aboriginal students and families into these learning environments will also facilitate greater student performance (Bell, 2004). Online content for Aboriginal learners should also include and respect local languages; and should highlight and celebrate culture making content more inviting and valuable.
Teachers who work towards consensus, invite mentors to teach others, welcome and validate parent input into decision making, and recognize that parents have expert knowledge about their community will have facilitated more opportunities for success within the Aboriginal learner context. (Bell, 2004). Having Aboriginal teachers and support staff (McLoughlin & Marshall, 2000) work together is another way to increase Aboriginal student success. In On-Reserve schools, these teachers and support staff have either been raised in the community or have lived on the Reserve for many years. These teachers collaborate in the development and delivery of online content and Bell (2004) argues that this type of collaborative development and delivery increased student achievement. For both On-Reserve and Off-Reserve schools, teachers should have access to or utilize On-Reserve staff to develop strategies to incorporate local knowledge and traditions into online content design and delivery (Daniels, 2004).
In addition to good teaching practices and development of meaningful courses, it has been found that online learning is more successful with Aboriginal people when there is a trained facilitator that is on site or easily accessible to guide students through the online content (Daniels, 2003; Sunchild eLearning Community, 2003; Kewatinook Internet High School, 2005).
It is also essential to understand, and the literature supports the argument, that creating cultural awareness with new and existing teachers is paramount (Raham, 2004; Professional Support and Curriculum, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2002; McLoughlin & Marshall, 2000; New Mexico State University, 2004; Australian National Training Authority, 2003).
Student Characteristics, Learning Styles and Needs
Also very important in order to realize positive student outcomes is consistent student attendance. Students are found to be more successful in their courses if they attend on a regular basis, and synchronous communication supports attendance and motivation to attend (Daniels, 2003). This synchronous communication is sometimes provided within a distributed learning model where students acquire synchronous communication in conventional teaching and learning environments. This allows facilitators to support students who live in small communities where many families do not have home computers due to economic factors (Daniels, 2003).
A pre-course introduction to online learning should be part of the mandatory requirements of students enrolled in online programs/schools, as is an introduction to any new technology (software) that online learners will be using (Daniels, 2003; McMullen & Marshall, 2000).
Further, Aboriginal learners are not often recognized as a population that would be part of the English as a Second Language community. As seen in the statistics from the 2001 Census, many Aboriginal people learn their own language before school and many adults and elders in communities have learned English as a Second Language (Daniels, 2003). Because of the ESL population, and a potentially low literacy rate due to the high percentage of grade 12 attrition rates among Aboriginal learners, online learning, supported by audio and video streaming materials or CD-ROM resources may serve to increase student outcomes (Daniels, 2003).
Online learning is impacting teaching practices and delivery methods. There are some efforts to provide in-service to teachers in facilitating an understanding of a comprehensive wrap that should be included in all online content. This comprehensive wrap should include:
Profiles
Characteristics
Learning styles
Effective strategies
Cultural sensitivities
Principles of differentiation
Learning models applicable to Aboriginal learners
Understanding of online learning
This type of on-going consistent professional development is required if teachers are to capably meet the needs of Aboriginal learners.
The instructional design of online content for Aboriginal students should include recursive pieces that would permit reuse, and that would include the 7 pedagogical and affective design elements listed above. Aside from in-service on pedagogical elements, teachers should also have on-going professional development specific to technologies and how to integrate them within the curriculum.
Teachers need to be accepting, tolerant, supportive, understanding of Aboriginal differences, and sensitive to cultural issues, racism, and Aboriginal curriculum; and need to build a positive relationship with students and community (Dunn & Marienetti, 2004; Ngeow & Kong, 2002).
Technology Knowledge
The level of computer understanding and proficiency seems to depend on the proximity of the community to a larger, more urban, community. Part of the problem in remote communities is that the teachers, both experienced and inexperienced, have little experience with the use of computers or how to integrate technology within their teaching and learning practice, and therefore the use of computer technology, in some instances, is limited at best, and negligible at worst. Teachers cannot teach with technology if they dont know how to use it (Grenall & Stelios, 2001). As well, in smaller communities teachers tend to assume responsibilities they have little expertise to undertake. Although the attempt to manage technology is admirable, and necessary in light of the fact that technological support is unavailable within many remote On-Reserve and Off-Reserve schools, issues of installation, troubleshooting, and networking are often beyond their scope of understanding.
Online learning promises to be a vital part of Aboriginal peoples educational future. As Canadas Aboriginal population is the fastest growing and most mobile population, with a current birthrate of 1.5 times that of other populations and 1 in 5 families moving per year, there is a urgency to support online content development, necessary infrastructures, and professional development for both On-Reserve teachers and students as well as Off-Reserve teachers who teach Aboriginal learners. Understanding that significant populations of Aboriginal people live in the Canadian north and on the Canadian prairies, and understanding that this population continues to increase, there is reason, need, and value in ensuring that online opportunities are available to these geographically dispersed areas of our nation. It is vital that Aboriginal people feel membership in their communities, and have the opportunity to live and learn within those communities. Lack of human and material resources in many of these remote areas do not permit equitable educational opportunities; however, online learning promises to change that crisis.
With the availability of online content and programs specific to Aboriginal learners, and with instructional design and delivery approaches that respect the diversity of Aboriginal cultures and traditions, Aboriginal learners would no longer have to rely solely on their local First Nation School (which may or may not provide all of the courses and options that might be of interest and need); nor on the public school systems that often require a significant amount of travel to get there, or require that learners move away from their communities to access learning (McMullen & Rohrbach, 2003). Technology and online learning should provide opportunities for communities to be involved in the development of online content and the online delivery of that content. Support for online learning specific to Aboriginal learners is evidenced from both the Federal and Provincial Governments through the sponsorship of Broadband Initiatives, as well as promoting First Nations communities and Schools to be part of the online sector. First Nations SchoolNet is a program that promotes technology development and projects in First Nations schools and communities (Greenall & Stelios, 2001).
Online opportunities for Aboriginal people may provide equity in terms of building technology skills, and providing equality of educational opportunities to teachers and learners from within Aboriginal communities. Technology can provide Aboriginal people with the ability to create employment and economic development opportunities for themselves through online training (Greenall & Stelios, 2001). Online learning promotes self-sufficiency through the acquisition of knowledge that may not otherwise be available. Students develop essential skills and attitudes that can be applied in any contextual situation, employment, or circumstance. Online learning may also provide opportunities to learn in new ways (using technology) and to preserve Aboriginal culture and language (Greenall & Stelios, 2001). In light of the progress of change within our generic global context, Aboriginal people are at a risk of being left behind (Greenall & Stelios, 2001). With a projected shortage of employable, skilled workers by 2010, technology and online learning opportunities are quickly becoming a necessity for remote and urban Aboriginal people.
There are also barriers to the development and delivery of online education
specific to Aboriginal people. The high mobility rate of Aboriginal people alone creates challenges in planning and implementing traditional delivery models. Low literacy levels of learners, access to technology, bandwidth, and connections to the Internet (satellite), appropriate teacher proficiencies and interest, and availability of courses with appropriate Aboriginal content could potentially become barriers to online learning initiatives. Local expertise in technology in all areas is a problem in remote communities, from knowledge, troubleshooting, purchasing, and set-up.
The biggest barrier for communities may be the cost. Computer infrastructures, hardware, software, maintenance, and evergreening are very expensive and challenging for most remote communities (Greenall & Stelios, 2001).
The variety of ways in which Alberta has defined and implemented online learning makes it extraordinarily difficult to even think about such broad questions as Does online learning improve students learning? The approaches that schools are now implementing include pure online approaches where teaching and learning occurs primarily using computer mediated communication. There are schools that rely (or have relied) almost entirely on email for communication between teachers and students. Many conventional and some online schools make extensive use of print resources. Some are using learning management systems including WebCT, Blackboard, Desire2Learn, and/or other course delivery tools. Some online schools require occasional face-to-face meetings. Some focus on elite athletes, others on home schoolers, while some focus on a cultural or cognitive subgroup (i.e. online schools specific to gifted and talented learners; online schools specific to aboriginal learners, etc.) It is a dazzling array of options, but all make some regular use of computer-mediated communication as a fundamental part of their educational program.
Oblinger & Maruyama (1996) argue that distributed learning systems permit a variety of educational approaches based on student needs and provide for anytime/anyplace learning. The inclusion of a variety of approaches seems to be an attractive feature of online learning and may be the means by which Off-Reserve and On-Reserve schools can meet the needs of Aboriginal learners. Further, with the decline in government funding to education, online learning may provide a variety of course offerings in a more creative and flexible manner by collaborating and by sharing resources. Since funding for Alberta schools systems is substantially driven by enrollments, incorporating an online school or program provides them with a competitive edge that meets the diverse needs of the learners they serve, including Aboriginal learners. Further, to ensure that school districts can continue to attract learners they have included everything from full online schools/programs to blended programs to dual registration programs.
The full virtual school program offers everything online and, therefore, does not require the physical structure of conventional schools. Even if students are provided with face-to-face opportunities, the venue need not be a school facility. The possibilities for reduced capital costs are certainly one of the attractions of full virtual schools, but virtual school advocates rarely mention this, focusing their arguments instead on learning issues. A virtual school offering learning anytime/anyplace, and which is capable of supplementing conventional school mandatory and optional courses, might serve remote Aboriginal communities with limited resources and whose students are geographically dispersed and find it difficult to travel to bricks and mortar schools.
Dual registration programs permit students to attend conventional school and also take classes online (for example, they may take courses required for post-secondary registration which are not offered by their conventional school). These dual registrations provide balance between online and face-to-face socialization, interaction, communication, and collaboration; and may also constitute the kind of responsiveness to different learning styles advocated in the research literature (e.g., in William and Brown, 1990). Both blended and dual registration programs permit students to register in part-time online offerings. In some cases Aboriginal learners do not feel accepted and/or comfortable with the methodologies used by all teachers in conventional teaching and learning environments. Taking some of their courses in an online environment may help to alleviate this issue (Adapted from: Hunter, B. & Smith, R., 2001).
Methodology
This study was conducted through the collection of data which included document analysis, observation of existing online content (specific to Aboriginal learners, as well as online content not specific to Aboriginal learners), and semi-structured interviews with teachers, Alberta Learning representatives, corporate representatives, and other stakeholder groups.
Interviews were conducted with personnel from several Aboriginal schools, as well as with elders from within Aboriginal communities, government officials, and corporate representatives responsible for the development of online content. The researcher was explicit that anonymity would be maintained for the Aboriginal schools participating in the study. The study was bound by a five-month time frame commencing on November 1, 2004 and ending March 31, 2005. The study identified schoolteachers, elders in the Aboriginal community, Alberta Learning representatives, and corporate representatives as multiple sources of information.
Data Collection
The data includes categorical aggregation, demonstrating the issue-relevant meanings that emerge and establishing patterns showing the relationship between issues among and within the various stakeholder groups. Also, generalizations are made through the analysis of the data revealing what educators might learn from the development of online content specific to Aboriginal learners, and what might be applied to the broader development and delivery of online content specific to this learner group.
The study includes a description of online content available through the LearnAlberta.ca initiative, as well as corporately developed content and online content that was created within existing school districts and specific to Aboriginal learners. The description allows transferability to other content development efforts through an understanding of characteristics that are shared (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). To further corroborate the findings this study has triangulated the data by including data that were gathered by the researcher in informal interview and focus group settings with members of the LearnAlberta.ca team.
Interviews
Semi-structured interviews of elders, teachers, AlbertaLearn.ca representatives, and corporate representatives were conducted. The questions for these interviews are included in Appendices A, B, and C. Most On-Reserve teachers and many Off-Reserve teachers had limited or no familiarity with the resources on the LearnAlberta.ca site, and therefore responses to those questions were often narrow.
Because of the distance required for a face-to-face interview, the interviews were done using an audioconferencing system where connectivity was not an issue, and by telephone for those without access to a computer and Internet. In all, fourteen teachers were interviewed; seven were Aboriginal teachers teaching in On-Reserve schools, while seven were non-Aboriginal teachers teaching in Off-Reserve schools but serving Aboriginal learners. The length of the interviews averaged 35 minutes each.
Interviews with Elders were all done in a face-to-face manner. The researchers were involved in other research initiatives relating to Aboriginal learners and used already scheduled meetings to also serve as the venue for interviews specific to this study. In all fifteen Elders were interviewed; ten were from the Blackfoot community, while five were from the Cree community.
Interview questions relating to the LearnAlberta.ca resources were sent to the Assistant Director of the Learning Technologies Branch (LTB). The interview questions were created after a preliminary dialogue with LTB representatives. The Assistant Director shared the questions with others in LTB, and an informal focus group telephone interview ensued (5 participants). The time of the interview was set at one hour by LTB. Although more time might have provided more rigor, AOC had no control over timeframe.
This study due to its time restriction focuses on the first stage of data collection that was to provide baseline data regarding the integration of online resources and/or the use of online courseware as an alternative teaching approach. This study also collected data for understanding what instrument and/or mechanisms could be consistently applied to existing online content and/or content under development to ensure compliance with Aboriginal needs, requirements, cultures and traditions.
The second stage of the research should continue to build on the baseline data collected for this investigation and provide a more in-depth review of content using the Open Vision Assessment Matrix (OVAM) instrument which was developed to serve this study. Its description is provided in the section titled Findings. In the second stage of this study, the OVAM will be used as an instrument to guide a pilot project in content development in an effort to realize more purposeful and valuable online content for Aboriginal learners.
The third stage of this research should focus on the use of existing online resources specific to Aboriginal learners and whether any transference to practice and/or changes in student outcomes are being realized. At that time surveys will be included in the methodology to collect data specific to teacher, student, community satisfaction rates, student performance measures, learner characteristics, etc. Further, in the second stage intensive case studies will be included in both On-Reserve and Off-Reserve schools and the study will attempt to include random experimental designs which would provide indicators of change, student performance measures, transformations in teaching practice and appropriateness of content for Aboriginal learners.
This study examines the context, content, characteristics, challenges and effectiveness of specific online resources and their application to Aboriginal learners and as outlined in the eight questions listed in the introduction. The research design was modeled after a similar study conducted in Canada (Smith, 2001), in which an expert advisory panel provided input into the research and survey design. This study addresses issues about existing online content, regarding its creation, collaborative processes, and appropriateness for Aboriginal learners. This study contains descriptive data on all of these issues. The study concludes with policy recommendations stemming from the research findings.
This study is a descriptive analysis. The description and interpretation of the data were verified by taking a preliminary draft of the data collected to selected participants for feedback, and those comments were also incorporated in the final study. The selected participants were asked for their verification of whether the data were accurate and whether the themes and constructs that the researcher identified were consistent with their experiences. They were also asked to identify any themes and constructs that may have been missed.
In this study, the data from the interviews, observations, and document analysis was organized by grouping like ideas or themes. These themes were further analyzed by looking for similarities or differences within the data. Because the constant comparison analysis was used throughout the study, it led to what Lincoln and Guba (1995) describe as both descriptive and explanatory categories (p. 341). Categories were continually defined and redefined as they emerged throughout the course of the study. An audit trail was devised linking the data to the speaker and the context.
In keeping with a naturalistic approach to research, the researchers were responsive to the emerging data, and attentive to atypical or unexpected responses. The researchers were mindful to present the study in a manner that closely approximates the reality it represents (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Where necessary, additional data were collected to ensure that it provided the descriptive information that was required for a sound analysis.
The study used maximum variation sampling which:
aims at capturing and describing the central themes or principle outcomes
that cut across a great deal of participant or program variation. For small
samples a great deal of heterogeneity can be a problem because individual
cases are so different from each other. The maximum variation sampling
strategy turns that apparent weakness into a strength by applying the
following logic: Any common patterns that emerge from great variation
are of particular interest and value in capturing the core experiences and
central, shared aspects or impacts of a program. (Patton, 1990, p. 172)
This type of sampling permits a detailed description of the date while identifying shared patterns that cut across contexts and stakeholders. The researchers have paid particular attention to ensuring the breadth in sampling (34 interviews); have considered changes over time that required further data analysis; and have made certain that data collection was significant.
In answering the eight questions that were proposed to guide this study, it was necessary to establish criteria on which to analyze existing content to understand its applicability, level of customization, contextualization and cost effectiveness. A common evaluative instrument was required such that content was reviewed equitably. To that end, the researchers developed the Open Vision Assessment Matrix, which was used as the tool by which content was evaluated. This tool is described in this section of the study and is first applied to content within the LearnAlberta.ca site.
The first of the research findings will focus on what ways the LearnAlberta.ca resource library provides content that is specific to the curriculum and is applicable to Aboriginal learners and educators.
One of the first lines of investigation in the research was examining what is arguably the largest collection of online content for K-12 in Alberta. The LearnAlberta.ca project is an online repository of content that has been developed to meet the learning outcomes as defined in the Alberta Learning curriculum guides (Figure 1).
Figure 1. LearnAlberta.ca
The repository is undergoing constant feature upgrading. It is currently designed to appeal to teachers, parents and developers who are looking for educational resources online that are linked to the current Alberta curriculum. Representatives with the Learning Technologies Branch report that the LearnAlberta.ca site is easy to navigate and additional new search engines and functionality are being developed (Spring 2005 release) that will make discovery of resources both simpler and more robust for users.
In terms of development of the content, there are identifiable processes in place to determine priority. Future development of content is currently based on priorities as outlined in the LearnAlberta.ca Project Management Processes document Content Priority Setting Strategies. Alberta Learning representatives also identified that on a project by project basis, teams identify which outcomes will be addressed by learning outcomes based on criteria such as best uses of technology, resource gaps, etc.
The content development standards that have been included within each of the learning objects are based on specific standards and guidelines that have been established by LearnAlberta.ca stakeholders and are consistently applied to all content development projects. Further, representatives from LTB argue that all online resources meet the Alberta Education Recognizing Diversity and Promoting Respect (RD&PR) guidelines. The LearnAlberta.ca site, according to questions answered in interview with LTB representatives, maintains standards for instructional design, functional design, adaptability between English and French, technical standards (developer-level and client/desktop). They also argue that the development process includes cycles for requirements gathering, field testing, and usability testing. The guidelines can be accessed under the Developers link at http://www.learnalberta.ca/Templates/Main.asp or specifically at http://www.learnalberta.ca/Developers.asp&Template=Content.
In terms of online content (learning objects) presently under development, the following process was identified by interviewed LTB representatives:
To ensure accountability and credibility with the diverse First Nations,
Metis and Inuit cultures and community groups, validation was based
on a limited version of the full scale consultation process used to bring
Aboriginal Studies 10, 20, 30 Programs of Studies to birth. Validation
of the learning objects uses the Western Canadian Protocol for Languages
as a model of consensus building to achieve equal recognition and mutual
respect, creating a balance between academic demands and transmitting
cultures.
Although the process is admirable, it is not being applied to content that is specific for Aboriginal learners, but rather to content titled Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 which is more directed to building an understanding of Aboriginal culture and tradition within non-Aboriginal learner communities. It focuses on providing information about Aboriginal culture, rather than providing material that is taught in a way familiar to Aboriginal learners. For this reason the online content that presently exists on the LearnAlberta.ca site has not been specifically developed for Aboriginal learners. Although representatives from LTB argue that the development of content specific to Aboriginal learners is an area of interest and desire, it has not historically been a priority for development. Cost and resource factors have been prohibitive in moving this directive forward.
Further, the pedagogical models that are implemented when developing online content are primarily based on project needs and are always directly linked to the philosophical directions articulated in the programs of studies which form the basis for the various projects. Arriving at the best pedagogical approach is part of the planning, research and development process. Interview participants from LTB also argued that in most cases the project coordinator is an educational subject matter specialist who draws from other expertise within the LearnAlberta.ca team, in the K-12 field and within the academic community.
Assuming that a similar process is applied to any online content that LearnAlberta.ca will develop specific to Aboriginal learners, LTB would draw from the Aboriginal community of learners and Elders to ensure pedagogical appropriateness and value.
There are indications that in addition to the Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30, that a future project would include First Nation, Metis, Inuit (FNMI) stakeholders. Interview participants stated that a series of low context learning objects for Social Studies will reflect FNMI infusion. A series of over 100 videos including interviews with First Nation Elders (Earth Magic Video) will be available. LTB representatives also argue that English Language 30-1 and 30-2 include topics such as storytelling that reflect Aboriginal perspectives, but have value to all learners.
In addition to their online resources Alberta Education has created a list of authorized resources for use with Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30. These include books, video, and other multimedia that can be accessed through Alberta Education, although not all of the resources have been developed in an online environment. Some are designed to be used solely within a conventional teaching and learning practice.
According to representatives from LTB, these authorized resources are not planned for inclusion in the current LearnAlberta.ca Aboriginal Studies project. The Learning and Teaching Resources Branch follows an authorization policy that outlines the criteria that is applied to decide whether a resource can be qualified as an authorized resource. Individuals within the LTB are responsible for resource review and textbook development for Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 to ensure that they can qualify as authorized resources. LearnAlberta.ca representatives stated that they have recently adopted a process of obtaining authorization for all new learning objects developed and posted on the web site. LTB has also stated that all new resources will be authorized prior to the launch.
Although many resources are available on the LearnAlberta.ca site, the issue of easy assess to authorized resources by educators in the Province was questioned. The LTB representatives interviewed argued that:
LearnAlberta.ca works closely with Alberta school district technical staff
to ensure that resources developed function acceptably within technical
environments in Alberta schools. A standard list of players and plugins
is developed in consultation with school districts and renewed once every
two years. Alberta Education operates a helpdesk available to all users.
Bandwidth requirements for resources such as video are considerable and
were developed alongside implementation of SuperNet. Additionally,
the delivery network servers available to schools (via the Learning
Resources Centre) that stream video locally without drawing extensively
on bandwidth. In terms of site usability, the current version of the web
site reflects formal usability testing with teachers, parents and students (as
young as 5 years). Requirements gathering (for site user interfaces changes
related to a new search engine) was conducted in the Spring of 2004 and
has informed current site development. Usability testing of site navigation
is planned for Spring 2005.
One of the LTB representatives identified that two learning objects specific to and for Aboriginal learners were under development. LTB identified that one of the learning objects would address Theme II of Aboriginal Studies 20 titled Treaties and Cultural Change. Since the focus is on Treaty 6, Treaty 7, and Treaty 8, LTB interviewed representatives stated that all First Nation communities in Alberta are included in the coverage. LTB representatives argued that the Programs of Studies for Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 were developed based on broad criteria, including a Province wide consultation process with First Nations, Metis and Inuit representation. LTB representatives also shared that upon completion of Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 Programs of Studies, a field survey was conducted which queried which outcomes should be prioritized for development of resources. In addition, LTB representatives stated that when the rough draft of textbooks for Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 was complete, the textbook review committee was surveyed as to which outcomes were least supported by the textbooks. On the basis of responses from the surveys, LTB stated that outcomes were chosen as the focus of learning objects. LTB representatives also argued that limitations on funding meant that only those outcomes identified as highest priority were chosen to be included in Learning Object digital resource development.
In order to ensure that the authorized resources carefully considered the sensitivities of both the student audience and the community, LTB representatives interviewed stated that the learning objects would contain teacher notes as PDF files, but that Professional Development resources were not planned to support further understanding and implementation.
LTB interviewed representatives argued that Aboriginal support for the rationale and development of learning objects was a collaborative process. The interviewees stated that from choosing the outcomes, throughout the design process, members of the Curriculum Branch, Aboriginal Services Branch and the Learning and Teaching Resources Branch whose culture is First Nations have been part of the decision making process. In addition, a validation committee with members representing First Nations, Metis and Inuit perspectives across the Province and across culturally diverse communities has reviewed the development of these learning objects. Additionally, Treaty 6, 7, and 8 Curriculum Implementation group participants provided input throughout development. Final authority over cultural, content, and language issues is left to the validation committee that has three opportunities for final validation as guided by LTB processes for quality control. Although the standards that apply to all developed learning objects for LearnAlberta.ca are applied to the learning objects developed for Aboriginal learners, LTB interviewees argue that the later resources apply more rigorous stakeholder validation. Although LTB interviewees argued future development of learning objects specific to Aboriginal learners is an objective, they indicated that budget is the primary consideration. The also argued that the greatest challenge in the development of learning objects specific to Aboriginal learners is the provision of adequate time to address validation processes. The researchers also questioned who would own the intellectual property specific to learning objects for Aboriginal learners. LTB interviewees did identify this as a concern and argued that an IP policy was under development within the department specific to issues of content ownership to and for Aboriginals.
LTB interviewees stated that the issue of connectivity for Aboriginal access will not be an issue in the near future. LearnAlberta.cas primary mandate is to provide digital content to Albertas learning community, although this is undertaken in alignment with technical infrastructure projects such as SuperNet. LearnAlberta.ca is available to all Alberta Learners, in both the provincially funded public system and to Aboriginal learners in federally funded Alberta schools.
Corroborating the literature review, and having interviewed Aboriginal stakeholders, the research identified an Aboriginal perspective on how content should be contextualized in a manner that is meaningful to Aboriginal learners. Contextualization was examined from the point of view of learning styles that might support strategies to direct the development and delivery of online content. A learning style can be summarized as the interactive process between an individual and their environment. The interaction is a mixture of the individuals biologically inherent and/or learned propensities as it reacts to a specific environmental demand (McNeely 1985, p. 2). One important point that arose was that Aboriginal learning style is not particular to one cultural or linguistic group and can be a contentious issue (Pewewardy, 2002). One of the teachers in the On-Reserve school stated that Aboriginal students are as different and individual as any other human being on the planet; the distinct difference when attempting to define a particular learning style is to understand the culture and traditions that direct their cognitive energies. For many, the issue is not as simple as assigning an approach to learning that is most likely to resonate with a particular group. Teachers and Elders felt that the development of a matrix that can evaluate the appropriateness of digital content for an Aboriginal learning audience is challenging, but could be developed with direct collaboration with Aboriginal teachers, elders, and other Aboriginal stakeholders. The approach that was taken in the development of the matrix focused on a generalized model that was gathered from a variety of Aboriginal perspectives. It drew on two central themes: core values in a diverse Aboriginal population, and an experiential approach to instruction.
Modern Aboriginal culture is a mixture of traditional values and a constantly evolving perspective on the world. Over and over again, Aboriginal teachers and Elders spoke of the preservation and sustainability of culture, tradition, and language; of the essence of Aboriginal life; of Spiritual and family needs; and of historical experience with non-Aboriginal schooling. One Elder spoke with passion about the pain and suffering of [his] people in educational institutions that deprived [them] of learning that could have been worthwhile.
To guide the development of online content for Aboriginal learners the following factors should be considered:
Aboriginal perspectives resist interfering in any way with the rights, privileges, and activities of another person (Spronk, 1995). Parents and elders serve as a repository of knowledge but they cannot really teach. It is up to the child to observe constantly and carefully.
Anger is considered to be damaging, and therefore must be restrained. Group cohesion is more important.
Vocal expressions of gratitude are not offered. An individual is expected to perform well, and if this occurs they will be asked to continue their contribution.
These perspectives have an impact on the transfer of knowledge between experienced members of a society and its learners. It also affects the evaluation of that knowledge transfer which has a much different focus than typical approaches in modern school systems. It is sensitive and respectful of what one teacher called the spirit of Aboriginal learning. They do not present completely incompatible approaches with current pedagogical approaches, but rather, a different emphasis and the ability to modify existing content to facilitate this emphasis.
The Aboriginal perspective on the construction of knowledge is compatible with constructivist perspectives, and the pathway for constructing knowledge resonates with experiential learning approaches. In this approach to building knowledge, the students are understood to be the inquiry force in exploring issues, while the teachers are there to facilitate the process and assist in making sense of the experience once the concept has been understood.
This learning model, defined by experiential learning, provides an understanding of how learning occurs through actual experience. It has a much different perspective that places the learner in a role where they learn through their own actions. The role of the teacher moves from an authoritative central fact provider to a facilitator. This learning model is heavily focused on the active participation of learners in their environment and the construction of knowledge based on those experiences. Kolb and Fry (1975) built an experiential circle using four key elements of experiential learning (Figure 1). It proposed that the learning process began after a learner had carried out an action and was able to see the results of that action in a particular context. That experience is then generalized into an understanding of how that action applies in a range of different contexts.
Figure 2. Experiential Learning Circle (Kolb & Fry, 1975).
The Aboriginal perspective on this learning cycle is compatible with Kolb and Frys interpretation, although Aboriginal learners have a different perspective on how the elements interact with one another (Figure 2). Aboriginal learners tend to emphasize the importance of different components and are more explicit in their description of the components. The observation of phenomena also involves reporting on the experience. Following this, the internalizing of the concepts encountered are synonymous with the formation of abstract concepts. The knowledge created is generalized so that it can be applied in new situations. This testing of the knowledge in a new setting is also undertaken using a slightly different approach. Before attempting a new behavior, an individual will withdraw and carefully observe. Many Aboriginal learners will then walk through all possible aspects of a scenario before attempting it. An individual must be prepared emotionally and spiritually for a chosen action before acting. This ensures that the action is undertaken at the right time. (Spronk 1995, p. 83). The level of caution contrasts the more common approach to experiential learning that allows for the creation of risk-free environments where failure can occur without catastrophic consequences.
Figure 3. Aboriginal Experiential Learning Circle
There are some important reasons for the differences in the way Aboriginals approach this cycle. The first is the emphasis in Aboriginal cultures on the application of knowledge for survival. For this reason, Aboriginal learners place much greater emphasis on the concrete experience phase of the learning cycle. It is believed that students should begin experiencing a real-world example of the issue and then work through the cycle. There isnt a scaffolding period where the teacher takes control of the learning experience. The other aspect of the cycle that is important to understand revolves around Aboriginal teachers discomfort with the idea that generalization occurs outside of the actual observation of the results of a particular behavior. Aboriginal learners believe that sense-making is an ongoing process, and to separate it seems contrived; sense-making occurs while the students are exploring and solving problems. The shift in emphasis incorporates Aboriginal emphasis on learning and doesnt alter the basic approach to constructivist learning (Stephens, 2000).
Recent studies have concluded that there is a higher than average number of students with disabilities in First Nations Schools in British Columbia (More 2002:4). The numbers were almost double when compared to non-Native schools. Although accessibility for students with special needs is always a critical consideration it is obvious that it is even more important if the student population has an even higher percentage of special students. What that demonstrates is the need to develop online content that is diverse enough to serve Aboriginal learners and provide a contingency for success. The development of an instrument that would guide content development is necessary in order to ensure consistent standards and rigor.
The matrix is designed to serve as an instrument that will facilitate the contextualization of content for Aboriginal learners. It will also serve to test the compatibility of existing online content to Aboriginal learning needs, styles, ideological and methodological preferences. The instrument has initially been applied to content within the LearnAlberta.ca repository as well as corporate content currently being used in Aboriginal learning contexts.
This investigation leads the researchers to existing content that has either been created for a generalized learning population or specifically for Aboriginal learners. In order for a consistent and unbiased evaluation of content to be undertaken, and in light of Aboriginal stakeholders who provided insight and direction in terms of how online content should be created for Aboriginal learners, the researchers felt it necessary to create a matrix based on the data that was collected within the Aboriginal community and what the research supported.
The creation of a matrix is designed to serve several purposes, which include:
Evaluating the cultural responsiveness of existing curriculum and content
Evaluating the suitability of the content to be re-purposed to match identified Native Learning Styles, needs, and ideological and methodological approaches
A consistent instrument that can be used to apply to content development initiatives specific to Aboriginal learners
There are a number of key elements that must be in place in order for a resource to be deemed culturally relevant. These include the involvement of local cultural experts, topics of cultural significance and adherence to cultural standards (Stephens, 2000). The Open Vision Assessment Matrix (OVAM) follows an evaluation model using an ordinal scale approach like that of the EvaluTech repository of the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB, 2005). This is also termed a consumer-based model, as it applies a standard rating scale across all of the objects reviewed and presents the information in a structured format (Nesbit et al, 2005). The model has strengths in its ability to evaluate a large number of objects quickly, the ability of multiple reviewers to use the guidelines, and the ability to compare between evaluated objects. The weaknesses of the model include a lack of depth of evaluation and the ability to address special characteristics of the content (Nesbit et al. 2002). This is where an expertise oriented evaluation can add a degree of qualitative information that can cover any parameters not covered by the consumer-based evaluation. An expertise-oriented evaluation offers the chance to add the expert judgment of the evaluator. It can suffer from subjective bias on the part of the evaluator, and can vary considerably between evaluators (Nesbit et al, 2002). To mediate this weakness of a consumer-based model, a comment and an additional comments section were added to the evaluation criterion. In the comment section the evaluator can add comments specific to a rating. The additional comments section allows the evaluator to add a summative evaluation of the entire resource.
The matrix background information section is designed to describe both the content of the resources and the context for which it was designed. This information includes the:
Name and context: The designated name of the resource and its intended context for use.
Content Development Model: A summary of the target goal of the content development. An example would be a course, module or learning object.
Interactivity Type: This defines both the interactivity type and the format of the media.
Usage: Identifies the audience currently using the content and the frequency of usage.
The matrix also includes seven evaluation measures by which content can be developed. These measures were included after interviews with Elders and teachers who provided an understanding of what type of measures might be applied to online content specific to Aboriginal learners. One of the Elders argued that traditions need to be respected if content was to be appropriate for Aboriginal learners. Another Elder commented that the spirit of objects needs to be understood so that Aboriginal learners can find value and purpose in the content that is being developed. Based on the data that was collected, the matrix was developed to include seven different measures which are described below:
Cultural Sensitivity: A measure of the consistent use of cultural sensitivity guidelines. An example would be those defined within Alberta Learning Aboriginal studies 10 / 20 / 30 guidelines. They are defined within the overview of program studies and within the review of resources to ensure issues such as racism and stereotyping are addressed as part of the program of study (Alberta Learning 2003).
Local Involvement: The level of involvement of a local expert in the development of the content. A successful approach to Native education has been the creation of local programs that allow students to complete the majority of their work close to their communities. The programs incorporate aboriginal perspectives in program and curriculum design, learning materials, pedagogical approaches, learner support and administrative procedures (Spronk 1995:86).
Cultural Significance: The alignment of the content of the resource to topics of cultural significance. This parameter is highly subjective and requires input from local experts to ensure that the content is not simply related to a topic that has been identified from a superficial, external observation of a culture. An example would be the ability for the curriculum outcome of the Learning Object to be mapped to a local knowledge paradigm.
Cultural Standards: The level of adherence to local cultural standards as identified and defined by Aboriginal stakeholders. Cultural standards cover a variety of areas that could include language usage, use of appropriate symbols and icons, and appropriate portrayal of relationships between individuals. Understanding Aboriginal perspectives on communication and interaction will assure that content exposed to learners will be accepted rather than causing discomfort and dissonance.
Traditional Learning Alignment: The alignment of the instructional design model of the resource to traditional Aboriginal learning approaches. This is a measure of the ability for the content to fit with approaches such as the Aboriginal Learning Cycle that emphasizes a learner centric model. The approach advocates that the learner can come to an understanding of a concept by moving through content in flexible manner and at their own pace. The model allows for outside assistance after the learner has interacted with the concept in a real and meaningful way and made their own sense of their experience. From an Aboriginal perspective, this outside assistance is provided by elders and local experts who will assist the learner, but only if the aid is requested.
Accessibility: The level of support provided to learners with disabilities. This is specific to those disabilities identified as being most prevalent in Aboriginal populations.
Aboriginal Learning Cycle Re-Purposing: This is a measure of the suitability of the resource to be re-purposed, that would then demonstrate effective practice specific Aboriginal learners and the Learning Cycle Model. This would include the ability for the content components to be replaced with content from a local perspective. Re-purposing the existing content presents a design challenge. Most content that has been created for the mainstream group of learners is unlikely to serve aboriginal learners effectively. They are usually written for the independent learner, rather than the interdependent aboriginal learner. The content is also often culture bound in content and strategy (Spronk 1995:94).
Each of the above seven measures are also scaled to identify the contents ability to incorporate each independent measure. Number one identifies that the content does not incorporate the measure, while number five identifies exemplar incorporation of the measure. Numbers two, three, and four are scaled by minimal, satisfactory and highly satisfactory descriptors.
This is a measure of the consistent use of with cultural sensitivity guidelines. An example would be those defined by Alberta Learning Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30 guidelines.
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1 |
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The content was developed with no cultural, ethnic and racial appropriate content. |
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2 |
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The content was developed with minimal appropriate cultural, ethnic and racial content. |
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3 |
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The content was developed with satisfactory appropriate cultural, ethnic and racial content. |
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4 |
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The content was developed with highly satisfactory appropriate cultural, ethnic and racial content. |
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5 |
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The content was developed with exemplar cultural, ethnic and racial content. |
This is a measure of the level of involvement of a local expert in the development of the content.
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1 |
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No involvement from local Native cultural expertise |
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2 |
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Minimal involvement from local Native cultural expertise. |
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3 |
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Satisfactory involvement from local Native cultural expertise. |
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4 |
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Highly satisfactory involvement from local Native cultural expertise. |
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5 |
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Exemplar involvement from local Native expertise. |
This is a measure of the alignment of the content to topics of cultural significance. This parameter is highly subjective, and requires input from local experts to ensure that the content is not simply related to a topic that has been identified from a superficial, external observation of a culture. An example would be the ability for the curriculum outcome of the Learning Object to be mapped to a local knowledge paradigm.
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1 |
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The resource has no recognizable Aboriginal cultural significance. |
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2 |
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The resource has minimal recognizable Aboriginal cultural significance. |
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3 |
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The resource has satisfactory recognizable Aboriginal cultural significance. |
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4 |
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The resource has highly satisfactory recognizable Aboriginal cultural significance. |
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5 |
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The resource has exemplar recognizable Aboriginal cultural significance. |
This is a measure of the level of adherence to local cultural standards. Cultural standards cover a variety of areas that could include language usage, use of appropriate symbols and icons, and appropriate portrayal of relationships between individuals. Understanding Aboriginal perspectives on communication and interaction will assure that content exposed to learners will be accepted, rather than causing discomfort and dissonance.
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1 |
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There is no adherence or acknowledgement of local cultural standards. |
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2 |
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There is minimal adherence or acknowledgement of local cultural standards. |
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3 |
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There is satisfactory adherence or acknowledgement of local cultural standards. |
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4 |
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There is highly satisfactory adherence or acknowledgement of local cultural standards. |
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5 |
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The resource has integrated local cultural standards in an explicit and identifiable way. |
This is a measure of the objects level of instructional design alignment to traditional Aboriginal learning models. It also measures the ability for the content to fit with approaches such as the Aboriginal Learning Cycle that emphasizes a learner centric model. The approach advocates that the learner can come to an understanding of a concept by moving through content in a flexible manner and at their own pace. The model allows for outside assistance after the learner has interacted with the concept in a real and meaningful way and made sense of the experience. From an Aboriginal perspective, this outside assistance is provided by elders and local experts who will assist the learner, but only if the aid is requested.
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1 |
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The resource demonstrates no instructional design alignment including a constructivist learning model with an experiential learning pathway. |
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2 |
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The resource demonstrates minimal instructional design alignment including a constructivist learning model with an experiential learning pathway. |
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3 |
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The resource demonstrates satisfactory instructional design alignment including a constructivist learning model with an experiential learning pathway. |
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4 |
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The resource demonstrates highly satisfactory instructional design alignment including a constructivist learning model with an experiential learning pathway. |
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5 |
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The resource demonstrates exemplar instructional design alignment including a constructivist learning model with an experiential learning pathway. |
This is the level of support provided to learners with disabilities. This is specific to those disabilities identified as being most prevalent in First Nations populations.
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1 |
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The resource was created with no accessibility features. |
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2 |
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The resource was created with minimal accessibility features. |
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3 |
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The resource was created with satisfactory accessibility features. |
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4 |
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The resource was created with highly satisfactory accessibility features. |
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5 |
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The resource was created with exemplar accessibility features. |
This is the ability of the resource to be re-purposed to demonstrate effective practice for Aboriginal effective learners and the Learning Cycle Model. This also includes the suitability for the content components to be replaced with content from a local perspective. The relevant components include the ability to add local perspective, create generalized applicability, and add real world applicability.
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1 |
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The content demonstrates no re-purposability factors. |
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2 |
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The content demonstrates minimal re-purposability factors. |
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3 |
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The content demonstrates satisfactory re-purposability factors. |
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4 |
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The content demonstrates highly satisfactory re-purposability factors. |
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5 |
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The content demonstrates exemplar re-purposability factors. |
See appendix D for a template of the Open Vision Assessment Matrix.
According to CISCO, their online training program includes a comprehensive, global e-learning program providing students with an opportunity to pursue IT curricula through online instructor-led training and hands-on laboratory exercises. Several CISCO and LearnAlberta.ca resources were randomly selected and evaluated using the OVAM instrument. Each evaluation has also been qualified with descriptive data in the sections titled Additional Comments. The material is representative of current LearnAlberta.ca and corporate online content.
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Matrix Value |
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Comments |
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Name and Context |
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Ideology and the News Media, Social Studies 30 |
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Learnalberta.ca learning resource |
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Content Development Model |
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Learning Object |
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Interactivity Type |
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Interactive Flash module |
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Usage |
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There are no stats on usage levels; the resource is being used by Albertan Social 30 classes. |
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Cultural Sensitivity |
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5 |
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Local Expertise |
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1 |
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Cultural Significance |
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1 |
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Cultural Standards |
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1 |
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Native leadership styles and ideology are not considered. |
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Traditional Learning Alignment |
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3 |
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Multi-channel, interactive multimedia approach used for conveying information. Inquiry approach not emphasized. Editorial component provides actual experience in writing political commentary. |
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Accessibility |
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1 |
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Encoded text and graphics do not have any accessibility features |
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Learning Cycle Re-purposibility |
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1 |
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The order of the content is fixed by the resource. It is not possible to start at a different point and work through the resource. Any placement of the resource into a real-world context (traditional knowledge) would need to occur outside of the resource. |
If the resource was a generalized approach dissent against a political entity it might have been articulated in the following manner: In order to address dissent with the current leader/ political entity who is in charge of ones jurisdiction, one needs to understand the traditional mechanism for dissent. Consultation with elders/ experts would identify the usual approach to expressing dissent and provide examples of how this has been approached in the past. It would then be up to the students to look at the information, process the information to make sense of it, apply it to an action that would be deemed appropriate and then generalize that strategy to other real-world issues. This resource does not allow for a diversity of approaches to political dissent. The only option currently available is the creation of an editorial.
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Matrix Value |
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Comments |
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Name and Context |
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Researching and Making Presentations, English Language Arts 30 |
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Learnalberta.ca resource |
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Content Development Model |
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Learning Object |
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Interactivity Type |
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Interactive Shockwave module |
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Usage |
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There are no stats on usage levels, the resource is being used by Albertan English Language Arts 30 |
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Cultural Sensitivity |
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5 |
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Local Expertise |
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1 |
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Cultural Significance |
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1 |
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Cultural Standards |
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1 |
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Native design approaches and ideology are not considered. |
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Traditional Learning Alignment |
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3 |
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Multi-channel, interactive multimedia approach used for conveying information. This includes video and audio. Inquiry can be used to gather info as this resource mainly provides a pathfinder. |
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Accessibility |
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2 |
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Encoded text and graphics do not have any accessibility features. The resource does provide for 4 different experience levels in students. |
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Learning Cycle Re-purposibility |
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3 |
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The order of the content is not fixed by the resource. It is possible to start at different points within the resource. Any placement of the resource into a real-world context (traditional knowledge) would need to occur outside of the resource. |
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Matrix Value |
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Comments |
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Name and Context |
|
Math 5 Live!, Grade 5 Mathematics |
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Learnalberta.ca resource |
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Content Development Model |
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Learning Object |
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Interactivity Type |
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Interactive Flash module |
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Usage |
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There are no stats on usage levels, the resource is being used by Albertan Math 5 classes |
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Cultural Sensitivity |
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5 |
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Local Expertise |
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1 |
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Cultural Significance |
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1 |
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Cultural Standards |
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1 |
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Native design approaches and ideology are not considered. |
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Traditional Learning Alignment |
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3 |
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Multi-channel, interactive multimedia approach used for conveying information. Inquiry is not used to gather information about the topic. No opportunity to practice content in a simulation or real-world context.. |
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Accessibility |
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1 |
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Encoded text and graphics do not have any accessibility features. The resource does provide for different experience levels. |
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Learning Cycle Re-purposibility |
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2 |
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|
The presentation order of the content is fairly flexible and allows a non-linear approach. An assessment module, parental notes and teacher notes are available as an external pdf. It would be possible to replace this assessment with local content. Any placement of the resource into a real-world context (traditional knowledge) would need to occur outside of the resource. |
The resource teaches basic math skills across a variety of topics. There are many attempts to provide some real-world relevance of the concepts using primarily urban examples. Some of the external components could be modified to offer more relevant examples for Aboriginal learners, but they would be placed outside of the context and flow of the resource.
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Matrix Value |
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Comments |
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Name and Context |
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Fundamentals of Web Design, Cisco Networking Academy |
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Content Development Model |
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Course |
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Interactivity Type |
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Interactive Flash module |
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Usage |
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There are no stats on usage levels, the resource is being used by Cisco networking Academy members |
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Cultural Sensitivity |
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4 |
|
No publicly available guidelines. |
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Local Expertise |
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1 |
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Cultural Significance |
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1 |
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Cultural Standards |
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1 |
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Native design approaches and ideology are not considered. |
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Traditional Learning Alignment |
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3 |
|
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|
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Multi-channel, interactive multimedia approach used for conveying information. Inquiry is not used to gather information about the topic. No opportunity to practice content in a simulation or real-world context. |
|
Accessibility |
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|
1 |
|
|
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|
Encoded text and graphics do not have any accessibility features. The resource does provide for different experience levels. |
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Learning Cycle Re-purposibility |
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2 |
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The content has a module design approach which would allow the components to be delivered with a different emphasis. |
This resource focuses on teaching Web Design fundamentals. Although it is organized in a structured, hierarchical manner and includes a linear navigational approach, it allows learners to move between concepts at will, so the content does not constrain the learner into a specific path. The modular approach of the course may allow for the adaptation of certain sections to better serve Aboriginal learners. Most relevant modularized components would be those relating to communication and design activities that would occur with a client. These sections currently focus on a business client, rather than a cultural community. There are numerous remedial resources that complement the resource. Their placement outside of the main content body may provide an opportunity for the addition of Aboriginal perspectives and comments on web design.
Findings and Conclusions
Applicability of LearnAlberta.ca content to Aboriginal Learners and Educators
A search of the LearnAlberta.ca repository yielded no resources that we classified under the Aboriginal Studies program. As discussed earlier, content that is specific to that curriculum is currently under development and was not available for the purposes of review. Therefore, only randomly selected generic content that was not intended for Aboriginal learners served as the basis for this review. In the course of the evaluation it became apparent that although the content followed guidelines to ensure that it was culturally sensitive to all population groups, it was not focused on the Aboriginal Learner. This inclusiveness was designed to address all potential audiences with no preference to one particular group. All of the content scored low on its use of local expertise, cultural significance, and cultural standards for that reason.
Local expertise was not part of the content design process, as making the content relevant to a specific geographical locale was not a priority. There was no focus on cultural significance, as most of the concepts were tied to specific learning outcomes that focused on developing abstract knowledge and specific skills, rather than understanding their value and purpose to and for Aboriginal learners. Cultural standards were generic in nature, and, if anything, represented a generalized Canadian perspective.
LearnAlberta.ca: Customization for Aboriginal Learners
Although the content as it presently sits on the LearnAlberta.ca site may not be applicable to Aboriginal learners, the researcher evaluated the possibility of taking the existing content and modifying it to be more suitable for an Aboriginal audience. Within a constructivist approach to instructional design, a learner should be allowed to choose one of many potential paths in the construction of their knowledge. This approach advocates a degree of flexibility in content design that should allow the addition of new material, as the demands of the learner require it. Understanding that most, if not all, of the existing content on LearnAlberta.ca incorporates a constructivist learning model, re-purposing it to address the needs of an Aboriginal audience should be possible. The re-purposed content should also include collaboration from local elders and cultural significance should also be addressed.
Reviewed content had varying degrees of re-purposibility. Some had external modules that could be modified, but most had a core that was not modifiable. This is primarily due to the technological format of the content that tended to lock the content into a single format. The resulting media file can only be viewed in a single way, regardless of any additional scaffolding provided by an educator. A solution to this problem would be for the site to provide access to the original source files which would permit changes, modifications and/or deletions.
The corporate sector has an increasing interest in assisting educational institutions with student learning. This sector realizes that it is important to encourage students to identify career pathways early in their education, facilitating entry into post-secondary programs. This could provide the corporate sector with motivated, competent, entry-level workers. Cisco Systems, Encana, BP Canada and Keyspan Energy Canada are all working with SAITs Centre for Academic Learner Services to create the Pathway programs that will facilitate this goal. The Pathways Project is designed to provide students with educational/ learning pathways that lead to both a post-secondary education and future career opportunities (SAIT 2005). The project expands the range of opportunities that will allow high school students to engage in postsecondary technical and career training. By allowing students this kind of opportunity, the program accelerates student progress towards technical certificates, diplomas, and degrees and provides an opportunity for high-wage, high-skill careers.
Sunchild and Piikani schools are involved in the Pathways Project to provide guidance and resources that will facilitate Aboriginal Learners to enter into career pathways in High School. Currently, the online content available in these schools is Ciscos Networking Academy, whose review was part of this study. Although relevant to technology-based issues, it does not specifically address the needs of Aboriginal learners. Although it provides an excellent introduction to the use of technology, there is nothing in the content that would explicitly engage Aboriginal learners and easily identify culturally relevant applications. Having said that, as the Pathways project begins to work with Aboriginal Schools more closely, they will be examining issues specific to engaging Aboriginal Learners in career pathways. The corporate sector, which is a major content provider for the project, will be part of this process. This work will occur while the Pathways Project will be undergoing new infrastructure and content initiatives in the summer of 2005.
There are only a few high schools in Canada who have completely immersed themselves in developing and delivering online content specific to Aboriginal learners and include Aboriginal content. Keewatinook Internet High School (KiHs) is an Aboriginal Internet high school in Ontario that serves youth from small isolated communities in Ontario. Traditionally, these students had no alternative but to leave their homes and communities in order to access higher education possibilities. That has all changed, since the KiHs Virtual School now provides learning anytime, anyplace.
KiHS is the first Ontario school to offer accredited secondary courses using the Internet as a delivery mode. It provides a traditional face-to-face classroom setting with Internet course delivery, and gives students access to learning courses and resources that they would not have had within their own communities. It also provides the flexibility and support to learn without leaving their family and homes. Students attend online classes with a facilitator/teacher who may teach both local and non-local students. This Online High school learning model permits students to remain in their community, and yet take ownership of the future through life long learning in their online community. Each student has access to a computer every school day.
KCDC is a non-profit organization that is focused on using ICT for the economic and social benefit of remote aboriginal communities. KCDC has taken a leadership role in building e-learning infrastructures facilitating remote communities. They began their involvement in 1996 with a strategic initiative project into how technology could support career counseling in northern communities. They provided online material and network support, but quickly expanded to include educational content.
Understanding the importance of technical infrastructures required for educational content, KCDC applied to a First Nations SchoolNet competition and became the regional management group for the federal program. KCDC recognized that in order for technology to have an impact in the classrooms, a number of initiatives would have to be undertaken. A needs assessment was KCDCs first step in identifying the current student to computer ratio, and using that data, KCDC brought all schools within their jurisdiction up to the provincial standard. More than just technology, KCDC provides professional development to teachers in helping them integrate technology into the classroom. A help desk is also provided to support and sustain the use of technology beyond the initial purchase. It is important to understand that KCDC does not force any group to use technology, they provide them with options. In this way communities can integrate the technology they deem appropriate at their own pace.
KCDC is continuing to build on the technical infrastructure that will be available to Aboriginal schools. They are actively working on getting SuperNet to schools by providing hardware and technical support. This high-bandwidth network will facilitate rich media delivery to the schools, as well as other applications such as video conferencing. As part of their role as the First Nations School Net regional management group, KCDC will share the knowledge they have gained nationally. Many other regions in Canada are working on similar projects, and KCDC will undertake a communications role to discuss issues, share success stories, and visioning in order to benefit the other regional management organizations. In addition to a network infrastructure, KCDC has a long-term vision of building a content repository that could provide re-purposable content for their stakeholders. They would provide the same level of technical support and professional development as they have in previous projects. It is in support of this goal that they have undertaken an investigation of the current status of online content appropriate to Aboriginal learners.
The Sunchild First Nation E-Learning Community, located on the Sunchild Reserve
near Rocky Mountain House, Alberta, is an online learning school that provides courses to high school students and adults to support the completion of high school requirements. This online school asserts high completion rates and argues that the level of education for Aboriginal students is improving. The Sunchild First Nation E-Learning Community was established in 1999, founded by Martin Sacher, who recognized that often the challenges for Aboriginal students to achieve success in their learning environments required that they remain in their local communities surrounded by family and familiarity (Zevenbergen, 2004). According to the Sunchild First Nation E-Learning community, this type of distance education creates accountability and interaction between student and teacher. Students who do not attend the classroom environment are tracked through log-in functions. The school states that they hire highly qualified teachers with a passion for Aboriginal learners. The students are monitored closely, and their achievement is tracked weekly to allow for early intervention, should it be required. If a student moves, has family commitments, and/or needs to either catch up or work at their own pace, Sunchilds classes are archived and accessible to students. Sunchild uses audio and voice over IP transmission, chat rooms, email and telephone, to ensure on-going and consistent communication between teacher and student; student and student, and teacher and parent. This school argues that students like the anonymity that the computer chat rooms and email permits, providing a non-threatening platform from which to voice their opinions and/or to ask questions. (Zevenbergen, 2004).
The conclusions and recommendations will center on the eight questions which framed this research, as well as a section on the OVAM instrument. Each question and the OVAM instrument has been discussed within the context of this study, and both the findings and the literature review provide great insight into ensuring that online resources for Aboriginal learners are replete with value, spirit, and purpose.
1. In what ways does the LearnAlberta.ca resource library provide content that is specific to the curriculum and applicable to Aboriginal learners and educators?
Several parameters of the OVAM define the nature of content that has application to Aboriginal learners. These include: cultural sensitivity, local expertise, cultural standards, Aboriginal learning alignment, and most importantly Aboriginal Learning Cycle re-purposibility. The conclusions of the randomly selected content from the Learn Alberta.ca site indicated that none of the current online content has specifically been created for an Aboriginal Context. This conclusion is consistent with the pedagogical goals of the content and the current content development policies of both government and corporations. The content has been designed to meet the needs of as many generalized learners as possible, and was never designed to address any specific cultural perspectives. The recommendation is that all future content within the LearnAlberta.ca site be created using OVAM to ensure its application to Aboriginal learners and educators. It is further recommended that additional funding and resources be provided to ensure that this application can be achieved.
2. What online learning resources are required to serve the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta, as identified by relevant stakeholders?
It is evident that the literature points to a need to increase learning possibilities that can be valued and are of purpose to Aboriginal learners (Bell, 2004). The recommendation is that online resources that are required to serve the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta, should include:
language development courseware, as the loss of Aboriginal languages can be alleviated through online learning modules, courseware and learning objects (Statistics Canada, 2004).
curriculum continuity or the process of integrating culture into the students daily learning from a position of wholeness needs to be integrated into both content and processes implemented in either online programs or conventional teaching and learning environments (Bell, 2004)
greater flexibility for working adults who wish to improve their educational level and offer Aboriginal learners, who have not met with success within conventional teaching and learning environments, an alternative that might provide an opportunity for success
collaboration with Aboriginal stakeholders, including a stakeholder validation process.
3. What level of customization in the LearnAlberta.ca resource library might be considered to meet the needs of the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta?
The LearnAlberta.ca content was created under the tenets of constructivist
instructional design parameters. This approach advocates a high degree of flexibility in the content, so as to allow the learner to construct their own knowledge in a way that is meaningful to them. It advocates a learning cycle that is in line with an experiential learning cycle where the learner experiences a problem, examines it carefully, and then implements a solution. A learners success or failure will then influence their perspective on the problem and influence their future approaches to similar problems. Both the constructivist perspective on learning and the experiential pathways, by their very nature, require that the learner have many different ways to solve a particular problem.
Practically it should not be difficult to add additional resources to an existing piece of content that would provide an Aboriginal approach to the problem in addition to the existing approaches. Unfortunately, most of the content has a limited ability to allow this kind of re-purposing. This is not necessarily due to the underlying pedagogical models in place, but rather the technical constraints of the media used. Most of the content is locked into a runtime or production environment that allows the content to be viewed, but does not allow access to the original source files that would allow the creation of a new content piece.
These issues are not unique to the Aboriginal context, and are in fact an emerging issue with all online content currently being developed. AOC has recently published the Flexible E-Content Guidelines which point out the three parameters of flexible content. These include sharing, content re-purposing, and content multi-purposing (Doerksen et al 2004: 5). The most poignant issues in the re-purposing of content to meet an aboriginal perspective are addressed in the content re-purposing section of the study. It found that the re-purposing of online digital content was significantly limited by contextual or environment factors. These included:
Age and other audience characteristics
Learning Theory
Venue (i.e. museum, Classroom, web)
Intended educational audience (i.e. structured learning, self-directed, information)
Jurisdiction
Expectations of delivery platform
(Doerksen et al 2004: 7)
The conclusions of the Flexible E-Content (Flex-EC) study advocated a more flexible approach to both the design and development of online digital content. The approach accepts the limited ability to re-purpose existing content, but encourages a more flexible approach for future content development initiatives. The kind of flexible design approach advocated by the Flex-EC guidelines is not apparent in any of the reviewed content. Based on these conclusions, it is unlikely that any of them would be easily modified to fit into an Aboriginal context. Although it is still possible to use some of the content, it would be necessary to examine the design and media constraints and make an initial recommendation on whether to re-use the current content or begin developing an entirely new version of the content.
Therefore, it should be noted that the LearnAlberta.ca resource library does not
provide application to Aboriginal learners and educators although the recommendation would be to repurpose such content, using OVAM as a consistent tool and the Flexible E-Content Guidelines to ensure that some, if not most, of the existing resources can become applicable to Aboriginal learners and educators. This is also the recommendation to question number four, which asks what can be identified to direct future development of online content that is purposeful, relevant, and meaningful to the Aboriginal learner population in Alberta and perhaps beyond. Again, the OVAM instrument is a tool that can support the understanding and integration of key factors in creating applicable content for Aboriginal learners.
4. What online resources can be identified within the corporate sectors that are appropriate for Aboriginal learners?
This preliminary investigation did not identify many sources within the corporate
sector that are appropriate for Aboriginal learners. Although the Cisco content was reviewed, it became evident that this content was not specifically intended for Aboriginal learners. In phase two of this study, it is recommended that further investigations be made into corporate sector content that may be applicable to Aboriginal learners. It is further recommended that funding be proposed to the provincial governments and to the federal government, as well as to the corporate sector, to investigate and implement the repurposing of existing content, and to apply to the development of further content.
5. What sustainability models in the development and delivery of online content can be identified within the corporate sector and/or the learning sector?
Content is expensive, and this will always be one of the limiting factors to the amount that can be developed to meet a specific pedagogical need. To limit this constraint, it is important to have sustainable models that can maximize the amount of content that can be developed with available funds. The most significant aspect of content development is building it with the understanding that it can and probably will be re-purposed to allow for a different cultural/ linguistic perspective. Repurposing existing online content is almost always more cost efficient than creating it. However, there are still costs attached to repurposing existing content. These costs can be absorbed through cost-sharing models where the intellectual property can then be shared among the stakeholders who originally created the content and those that repurposed it. There is a potential market for this newly re-purposed material, which can be sold and the revenue shared among the stakeholders. The generated revenue might be used to create more content, providing a sustainable model of content development.
Those programs that emphasize the understanding of different perspectives would find the repurposed material invaluable. The concept of seeing through two eyes offers insight and empathy into another culture and provides a road to powerful observation and critical thinking skills. The recommendation is that online content should be developed with a built in sustainability model, allowing for the re-use of content for various groups, cultures, cognitive, and social learner needs. It is therefore possible that the value added by Aboriginal re-purposing efforts can provide a marketable product that can be used to generate resources that can maintain their own content development initiatives.
Another important aspect of sustainability is the building of a consortium of Aboriginal educators who can come to a consensus about the design and development of content. It is recommended that cultural groups with common traditions, cultures, and perhaps even language work together to create best practice guidelines. Further, it is recommended that these common groups pool their resources to create online content that can be jointly used. Finally, it is recommended that all online content be created in a manner which permits the repurposing of such content. There are many existing models of consortia that detail the governance, administration, and best practice guidelines that would be necessary for such an organization to run smoothly.
6. What time and cost efficiencies can be realized from these sustainability
models?
The time and cost efficiencies garnered by these sustainability models mainly come from the avoidance of creating multiple copies of a learning resource that is trying to teach a very similar outcome. The creation of content that follows instructional and media design guidelines that facilitate re-purposing will shortcut any effort when building content for a new audience. This approach would save time, as the initial research and design process would not need to be repeated. It would also save money, primarily in the form of soft costs that would be required to take those designs and build digital content. The approach does not necessarily guarantee that all content will be re-purposed to allow for the creation of new content; however, if online content is developed in a manner which permits repurposing, the choice is built in. It would already be in a format that would allow content developers to review existing content and then make an informed decision on whether or not the content is of enough value to repurpose it. It is recommended that in phase two that the OVAM instrument be applied to a wider scope of online content in order to decide whether to repurpose existing content or to create it.
KCDC, with support from organizations like the Alberta Online Consortium, could serve to lead a consortium that would provide additional cost saving. This would be realized by serving to bring stakeholders together, and encouraging them to pool resources together to build a shareable body of content. If a group of 10 organizations could be brought together, there is a potential to have ten quality content pieces available to the Consortium. Those ten individual pieces of content might not be available to other organizations, as they may not have clear intellectual property guidelines in place for sharing, or even worse, they may represent ten versions of the same learning resource. In phase two of this study it is recommended that intellectual property guidelines be created and applied to a collaborative content development initiative, which would see organizations working together to build content and to share existing content on a repository.
7. What contextualization is required to make corporate and other online content applicable to Aboriginal Learners?
In terms of developing appropriate content for Aboriginal learners the most successful approach would be to ensure collaboration with Aboriginal stakeholders and to include a stakeholder validation process. In this way, the content can be collaboratively created between instructional designers and their aboriginal partners with a minimum of constraints. The approach would require a content creation workflow that allowed user feedback and validation during the development process. This user-centric model of development is designed to facilitate a feeling of ownership by the user of the content, and to provide the level of contextualization necessary to make the online content of value to the Aboriginal context. By engaging users, it is possible to increase the success level of the content in terms of relevance and engagement.
The issues of content re-purposing and interoperability have presented a consistent challenge to the developers of digital content, but repurposibility and interoperability are key factors to the contextualization of existing online content. One such solution to meeting these challenges is the open standards created by such groups as IMS global and ADLNet. These groups have created specifications that are expressly designed to allow content to move freely between systems, so they can be delivered in a variety of settings. They are also designed to allow content to be modularized so that it can be combined and updated by changing relevant modules rather than an entire piece of content such as a course. Although all of the standards and specifications have importance, IMS Content Packaging is the most important open standard for the creation of re-purposable content. It is a specification that creates a module structure for content, and is most often used in the development of courses. It is currently the specification of choice in the development and description of course content for most commercial learning management systems.
It is recommended that wherever possible that these specifications be used as the basis for content development efforts, as they facilitate collaboration and sharing. This will not only occur among the consumers of the education content, but the content developers themselves. If a collaborative model is undertaken for content development, it would be possible to assemble the contributions of multiple developers into a final product if they have all followed the same specification.
The repurposing/ re-visioning or contextualization of content should be focused on creating content that would be meaningful to both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal learners. The Aboriginal perspective is that content re-purposing should reveal cultural assumptions that are integrated into the content (Spronk 1995:94). Even when the content has been re-purposed for an Aboriginal audience, it should still be accessible to non-Aboriginal audiences. A non-Aboriginal should be able to use the content to gain empathy for Aboriginal cultures and traditions, as well as to reach a meta-cognitive acknowledgement of the kinds of bias a Euro-Canadian culture may bring to the development and understanding of online content. This perspective believes that mainstream Canadian society has a lot that they can learn from other cultures. It also acknowledges that the content used to teach these concepts cannot be solely created from its own Canadian cultural perspective. There are many school curriculums across Canada that have explicit learning outcomes focused on this issue. The amount of available content is limited, and there will be continuing demand for a number of options available to educators. In the spirit of contextualization, the OVAM instrument should serve to support the inclusion of value, purpose and spirit to online content specific to Aboriginal learners.
OVAM INSTRUMENT
In the future the OVAM matrix model will need to be validated by the addition of an objective-oriented model. This kind of model will create a framework that will evaluate the goals of creating content for Aboriginal Learners. This will need to occur with developed content being used with actual learners to see if the educational and cultural goals have been met (Nesbit et al 2002). This approach will be much more time intensive, as it will require user groups to be defined, testing set up, and the results reported upon. The time intensive nature of this new component would also require additional resources in place to gather both qualitative and quantitative data from learners. The new addition would provide additional validation to the assertion that current content is not initially appropriate and relevant to Aboriginal learners, and requires additional resources to reach that point. It is recommended that this objective-oriented model be incorporated into phase two and three of this research. Building that validation will be important during the review of existing content by Aboriginal groups.
What do you understand as the urgent issues in education specific to Aboriginal learners?
What changes to practice would you like to see in On-Reserve Schools?
What changes to practice or understanding would you like to provide or see in Off-Reserve Schools that also serve Aboriginal learners?
What role should technology play in education?
What role should the elders play in education?
What is your understanding of online learning?
Do you believe that online learning must positively impact student outcomes? Explain.
Who should develop the online content for Aboriginal learners?
Who should deliver the online content? (i.e. Aboriginal teachers or non-Aboriginal teachers or both).
Any other comments you would like to make about education or online learning specific to Aboriginal learners?
(the same questions were provided to On and Off Reserve Teachers)
What do you understand as the urgent issues in education specific to Aboriginal learners?
What changes to practice would you like to see in On-Reserve Schools?
What changes to practice or understanding would you like to provide or see in Off-Reserve Schools that also serve Aboriginal learners?
4. What role should technology play in education?
What role should the elders play in education?
What is your understanding of online learning?
Do you believe that online learning must positively impact student
outcomes? Explain.
8. Does the school that you teach in have the connectivity and
computer technologies to support online learning? Explain.
9. Do you have enough understanding and practice to develop,
deliver, and/or integrate online learning in your teaching and
learning practice? Explain.
10. If not, what is required?
11. Who should develop the online content for Aboriginal learners?
Who should deliver the online content? (i.e. Aboriginal teachers or
non-Aboriginal teachers or both).
13. Are you familiar with or have you used any of the resources on the
LearnAlberta.ca site? If so, which ones and how? If not, why not?
14. Any other comments you would like to make about education or
online learning specific to Aboriginal learners?
How has KCDC seen the role of technology in helping people with their career decisions and training?
How has the Headwaters Education Centre been developed to specifically address the language/ cultural needs of the learner?
How has the Centre used technology to address these needs?
What do you think is the future of the Centre?
How will First Nations Schoolnet be related to the Centre?
What is the most pressing demand for product/ service in remote communities?
What is the timeline for the Broadband for Remote and Northern Development pilot program?
What role will KCDC be taking in the project?
In what ways will broadband access in the north change educational opportunities for northern communities?
What role do you see for technology in the revival of traditions and culture?
Is there a document that identifies and lists all of the resources on the LearnAlberta.ca site?
What process was used to identify which learning objects would be developed?
What standards have been included within each of the learning objects?
Have the standards changed since early development stages?
Is there a document that identifies the standards that are presently being used to create learning objects?
What pedagogical approach is used in the creation of LearnAlberta.ca learning objects?
Within the LearnAlberta.ca site, are there learning objects that are specific to Aboriginal learners?
Within the LearnAlberta.ca site, are there learning objects that contain Aboriginal content that would be relevant to aboriginal or non-aboriginal learners? If so, which ones? If not, why not?
Alberta Learning has created a list of authorized resources for use with Aboriginal Studies 10 / 20 / 30. This list includes video and other multimedia that could be delivered online. How is LearnAlberta.ca dealing with those resources and is there an intent to digitize them for inclusion in the repository?
What authorization process was involved in order to make these recognized resources?
How easily accessible to teachers are the authorized resources on the LearnAlberta.ca site?
The assistant directory of the Learning Technologies Branch identified two learning objects presently under development that are specific to Aboriginal learners. Can you identify the following:
Do they target a specific Aboriginal Community (i.e. Cree, Blackfoot, Denai etc.)?
What criteria led to the decisions to build these resources?
There is a note in the authorized resources list that indicates that careful consideration should be given to the sensitivities of both the student audience and the community. Is this decision left to local practitioners or is this included in the initial design of the LO?
Have Aboriginal communities supported the rationale and development of these learning objects? (i.e. what was the process)
If consultation from the Aboriginal Community was included in the process of deciding and developing the LOs, what expectations and roles did stakeholders play?
What approval processes were implemented to address technical, cultural, pedagogical, and content issues relative to both formative and summative stages of the learning object development? How was this process facilitated with the Aboriginal community? Who had final authority over cultural, content, and language issues?
Are the standards the same as the standards that are used for the development of all other LO development?
Is their a generalizable learning profile of Aboriginal learners, and is that different from the generalizable learning profile of greater Alberta learning community? If so, how was this profile determined?
If the profile of the Aboriginal learner is different, how did that impact the development of the LO?
Is the issue of accessibility/connectivity an identified concern, and does this impact the development of LOs specific to Aboriginal learners? (On and off reserve access)
What is the intent for future development of LOs specific to Aboriginal Learners?
Are there any challenges in the development of LOs for Aboriginal Learners that are different from LearnAlberta.cas historic development of LOs?
If consultation with the Aboriginal Community was part of the process, what issues of cultural Intellectual Property were identified, and how do they impact the development of LOs?
OVAM INSTRUMENT ©Smith & McGee
Values See descriptors on pp 50-55.:
none
minimal
satisfactory
highly satisfactory
exemplar